Table 18.1 (page 344) lists the various exteroceptors of the body.

Pacinian corpuscles are onion-shaped sensory receptors that lie deep within
the dermis. Ruffini endings and Krause end bulbs are encapsulated by
sheaths of connective tissue and contain lacy networks of nerve fibers.

The classical view is that each sensory receptor has the main function shown
here. However, investigators report that matters are not so clear cut. For
example, microscopic examination of the skin of the ear shows only free nerve
endings (pain receptors), and yet the skin near the ear is sensitive to all
sensations. Therefore, it appears that the receptors of the skin are somewhat,
but not completely, specialized.

a. Papillae on the tongue contain taste buds that are sensitive to sweet,
sour, salty, and bitter tastes in the region indicated.
b. Enlargement of papillae.
c. Taste buds occur along the walls of the papillae.
d. Taste cells end in microvilli that bear receptor proteins for certain
molecules. When molecules bind to the receptor proteins, nerve impulses
are generated that go to the brain where the sensation of taste occurs.
e.

Olfactory bulbs have direct connections with the limbic systems and its
centers for emotion and memory. Thus, odors often trigger vivid memories.

a. The olfactory epithelium in humans is located high in the nasal cavity.

b. Olfactory cells end in cilia that bear receptor proteins for specific color
molecules. The cilia of each olfactory cell can bind to only one type of odor
molecule (signified here by color). If a rose causes olfactory cells sensitive to
purple and green odor molecules to be stimulated, then neurons
designated purple and green in the olfactory bulb are activated. The primary
olfactory area of the cerebral cortex interprets the pattern of neurons
stimulated as the scent of a rose.

Table 18.2 (page 350) contains a list of the parts of the eye and their
functions.

When a person has glaucoma,

Notice that the sclera, the outer layer of the eye, becomes the cornea and that
the choroid, the middle layer, is continuous with the ciliary body and the iris.
The retina, the inner layer, contains the photoreceptors for vision; the fovea
centralis is the region where vision is most acute.

a. Light rays from each point on an object are bent by the cornea and the lens
in such a way that an inverted and reversed image of the object forms on the
retina.
b. When focusing on a distant object, the lens is flat because the ciliary
muscle is relaxed and the suspensory ligament is taut.
c. When focusing on a near object, the lens accommodates; it becomes
rounded because the ciliary muscle contracts, causing the suspensory
ligament to relax.

The outer segment of rods and cones contains stacks of membranous disks,
which contain visual pigments. In rods, the membrane of each disk contains
rhodopsin, a complex molecule containing the protein opsin and the pigment
retinal. When rhodopsin absorbs light energy, it splits, releasing opsin, which
sets in motion a cascade of reactions that ends when ion channels in the
plasma membrane close.

The retina is the inner layer of the eyeball. Rod cells and cone cells located at
the back of the retina synapse with bipolar cells, which synapse with ganglion
cells. Integration of signals occurs at these synapses; therefore, much
processing occurs in bipolar and ganglion cells. Further, notice that many rod
cells share one bipolar cell, but cone cells do not. Certain cone cells synapse
with only one ganglion cell. Cone cells, in general, distinguish more detail than
do rod cells.

Both eyes see the entire visual field. Because of the optic chiasma, data
from the right half of each retina go to the right visual areas of the cerebral
cortex, and data from the left half of the retina go to the left visual areas of the
cerebral cortex. These data are then combined to allow us to see the entire
visual field. Note that the visual pathway to the brain includes the thalamus,
which has the ability to filter sensory stimuli.

In the middle ear, the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil), and the stapes
(stirrup) amplify sound waves. In the inner ear, the mechanoreceptors for
equilibrium are in the semicircular canals and vestibule, and the
mechanoreceptors for hearing are in the cochlea.

The spiral organ (organ of Corti) is located within the cochlea. In the uncoiled
cochlea, note that the spiral organ consists of hair cells resting on the basilar
membrane, with the tectorial membrane above. Hearing occurs when
pressure waves move from the vestibular canal to the tympanic canal, causing
the basilar membrane to vibrate and the stereocilia (of a least a portion of the
20,000 hair cells) to bend within the tectorial membrane. Nerve impulses
traveling in the cochlear nerve result in hearing.

a. Rotational equilibrium. The ampullae of the semicircular canals contain hair

cells with stereocilia embedded in a cupula. When the head rotates, the
cupula is displaced, bending the stereocilia. Thereafter, nerve impulses travel
in the vestibular nerve to the brain.
b. Gravitational equilibrium. The utricle and the saccule contain hair cells with
stereocilia embedded in an otolithic membrane. When the head bends,
otoliths are displaced, causing the membrane to sag and the stereocilia to
bend. The rapidity of nerve impulses in the vestibular nerve tells the brain how
much the head has moved.