Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Chapter 2

Laws of chemical combination

1. The Law of Conservation of Mass
(Lavoisier)
Mass is neither created nor destroyed
The total mass remains constant during a
chemical reaction

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The Law of Conservation of Mass

Example 1
Mercury oxide
Mercury
+ Oxygen
mass (MO)
=
mass (M)
+ mass (O)
air

Example 2
Mass (tree) + 75 Kg
Mass (soil) - 0.05 Kg
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wate
r

soil
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Laws of chemical combination

2. The Law of Definite Proportions (Proust)
All samples of a compound have the same
composition
A given compound always contains exactly
the same proportions of elements by
mass
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The Law of Definite Proportions

Example
Given:
In MgO, O: Mg = 0.6583:1
Mass (Mg) = 2 g
Req:
mass (MgO)

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The Law of Definite Proportions

Example
solution:
Mg + O
Mg : 0
1 : 0.6583

MgO
Mg : 0
1 :

0.6583
2 : ?
O = (2 x 0.6583) /1 =1.317 g
MgO = 1.317 + 2 = 3.317 g
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Laws of chemical combination

3. The Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton)
In two or more compounds of the same two
elements, the masses of one element
that combine with a fixed mass of the
second element are in the ratio of small
whole numbers

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The Law of Multiple Proportions

(Dalton)
Example
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
CO
CO2
3 g carbon (C)
g carbon (C)
+
+
4 g oxygen (O)
g oxygen (O)

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8
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Laws of chemical combination

Daltons Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of indivisible
atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are alike in
mass and other properties, but the atoms
of one element differ from the atoms of
every other element.
3. Compounds are formed when the atoms
of different elements unite in fixed
proportions.
4.
A chemical reaction involves a Mayyada El-Sayed
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The Atom

Nucleus

electrons
protons + neutrons

(-)

(+)
(zero)
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons = Number
of electrons
Mass Number (A) : Number of protons + Number
of neutrons
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Number of neutrons = A- Z

Example
81
Given :
Br, Z = 35
Req
:
number of protons, electrons,
neutrons
Sol
:
protons = electrons = 35
neutrons = A-Z = 81-35 = 46

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Isotopes
Atoms having same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
Example 1
Hydrogen (H2)
Z=1
protium
deuterium
tritium

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H
2
H
3
H

N=0
N=1
N=2

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Isobars
Atoms with the same mass number but
different atomic numbers
Example
116

48

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Cd

116

Sn

50

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Classical view of atomic structure

The electron (Faraday)
Cathode rays: formed when electricity passes
through gases at very low pressures.
-

emitted from the cathode.

emitted in straight lines.
cause glass to fluoresce.
deflected by a magnet.

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The electron

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Classical view of atomic structure

The electron
Thomson experiment:
- negatively-charged, now called electrons.
- calculation of mass-to-charge ratio, by
deflection in magnetic and electric fields.
mass
charge
me / e = -5.686 x 10-12 Kg/C
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me
e

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The electron
Millikans experiment:
- produce tiny oil droplets, have them acquire
an electric charge, measure the velocity in
presence and absence of electric field.
- calculate charge of the electron.

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The electron
- calculation of the mass of the electron
e = -1.602 x 10-19 C
me = (me /e) x e = 9.109 x 10-31
Kg
Similarly,
- calculation of the mass of the proton
me /e for proton = 1.044 x 10-8 Kg/C
p = +1.602 x 10-19 C
mp = (mp /p) x p = 1.672 x 10-27
Kg
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- calculation of the mass of the neutron

Atomic models
1. Raisin Pudding atomic model
(Thomson)
The positive charge is uniformly distributed in
a spherically shaped cloud and the
negative electrons are embedded randomly
in it.

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Atomic models
2. Nuclear atomic model (Rutherford)
The scattering of alpha particles by metal foils
suggested that the atom had a tiny,
massive, positively-charged nucleus that is
surrounded by electrons.

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Atomic mass
Atomic mass unit (u) for hydrogen (H2) = 1
Atomic mass unit (u) for oxygen (O2) = ?
In water (H2O):
H:O
1:8
2:?
? = 16
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Isotopic masses
Positive ions and mass spectrometry
- produces ions from the substance under
investigation.
- separates them according to their mass-tocharge ratio.
-records weighted atomic masses of the
elements and relative abundances of the
isotopes.
Mass spectrometer consists of:
-ionizer to produce ions.
-mass analyser to separate ions
by
defection in a magnetic field.
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mass spectrum
No of atoms
or %
abundance

mass-tocharge

An element having two isotopes, appearing as

two peaks.
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Atomic mass
Standard atomic mass = atomic mass unit of
C-12 =12u
From spectral data,
mass of 16O / mass of 12C = 1.33291
mass of 16O = 1.33291 x 12 = 15.9949 u
Mass numbers are whole numbers
Atomic masses are not whole numbers,
except for C-12
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Example 2
carbon (C)
Isotope
mass
% abundance
fractional abundance
C-12
12
98.93%
0.9893
C-13
13
1.07%
0.0107
Contribution of isotope = fractional abundance x
mass of isotope
1. Contribution of C-12
= 0.9893 x 12Mayyada El-Sayed
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2. Contribution of C-13
= 0.0107 x 13

The periodic table (Mendeleev)

Elements arranged in the order of increasing
atomic weight, in groups and periods.
Periods: horizontal rows of elements.
Groups: vertical columns of elements that
have the same chemical and physical
properties (1A, 2A, 3B).
1. Alkali metals group 1A, react with
water to form alkaline solutions.
2. Alkaline earth metalsgroup 2A, have
properties similar to those of group 1A
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El-Sayed
but are slightly less reactive,
hence
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The periodic table (Mendeleev)

3. Halogens group 17A (salt former in
Greek) because they easily form negative
ions.
4. Noble or inert gasesgroup 18A, they
do not readily form compounds.
Metals
. characteristic luster
. good conductors of heat and electricity
. ductile and malleable
Non-metals, metalloids
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Stoichiometry of chemical formulas

Molecular masses
Molecular
compounds
have
molecular
formulas and molecular masses.
Molecular mass is the sum of the masses of
the atoms represented in a molecular
formula.
Example 1:
Molecular mass of CO2
= (atomic mass of C x 1) + ( atomic mass
of O x 2)
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= (12.011 u x 1) + (15.9994 u x 2) =

Molecular masses
Example 2:
Molecular
mass
of
glycerol
propanetriol)?
Molecular formula: C3 H8 O3

(1,2,3-

CH2OHCHOHCH2OH
= (atomic mass of C x 3) + ( atomic mass of H x 8)
+ ( atomic mass of O x 3)

= (12.011 u x 3) + (1.00794 u x 8) + (15.9994 u x

3) = 92.095 u

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Formula masses
Ionic compounds have formula units and
formula masses.
Formula mass is the sum of the masses of
the ions present in a formula unit.
Example 1:
Formula mass of BaCl2
= (atomic mass of Ba x 1) + ( atomic mass
of Cl x 2)
= (137.327 u x 1) + (35.4527 u x 2) =
208.232 u
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Formula masses
Example 2:
Formula mass of ammonium sulfate?
(NH4)2 SO4
= [(atomic mass of N x 1) + ( atomic mass of H x
4)] x 2
+ [( atomic mass of S x 1) + ( atomic mass of O x
4)]
= 132.141 u
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The mole
A mole (mol) is an amount of substance that contains
as many entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g
of C-12.
Avogadros number (NA )
NA

= 6.02 x 1023

mol-1

A mole contains Avogadros number of molecules,

atoms or formula units.
For example,
A mole of CO2 contains NA of molecules.
A mole of C contains NA of atoms.
A mole of NaCl contains NA of formula units.
A mole of Mg and a mole of Fe both contain
NA , but
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have different masses.

Molar mass
Mass of 1 mole of a substance (g/mol).
1 mole of C-12 has a mass of 12 g,
molar mass ( 12 g/mol) = atomic
mass (12 u)
For example,
1 mole of Na = 6.02 x 1023 Na atoms = 22.99 g Na
Example:
Mass of a 0.0750-mol sample of Na?
mol
mass
1
22.99 g
0.0750
?
Mass = 0.0750 mol x 22.9 (g/mol) = 1.72 Mayyada
g NaEl-Sayed
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Example:
Number of moles of Na in a 62.5-g sample?
mol
mass
1
22.99 g
?
62.5 g
Moles = 62.5 (g) x 1 (mol)/ 22.9 (g) = 2.72 mol Na
Mass of a sample of Na containing 1.00 x 1025 Na
atoms?
mol
atoms
1
6.02 x 1023
?
1.00 x 1025
Mass = ? (mol) x 22.99 (g/mol) = 3.818 x 10-23 g
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Example:
Mass of a single Na atom?
atoms
6.02 x 1023
1

mass
22.99 g
?

The mole and molar mass

1 mol C3 H8 O3
3 mol C atoms

8 mol H atoms

3 mol O atoms

1 mole C3 H8 O3 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules = 92.095

g
(NH4)2 SO4 ?
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Example:
Number of NH4+ ions in a 145-g sample of (NH4)2 SO4 ?
mol
mass
1
132.14 g
?
145 g
Each mole (NH4)2 SO4 contains 2 moles NH4+ .
Number of ions = [145 x 1 / 132.14] x 2 x 6.02 x 1023
= 1.32 x 1024 ions.

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Example:
The volume of glycerol (d = 1.261 g/mL) that contains
1.00 mol O atoms?
Each mole C3 H8 O3 contains 3 moles O .
mol
1
1/3

mass
92.095 g
?

V= m / d = 92.095 x (1/3) 1.261 = 24.3 mL

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An estimation example:
Which of the following is a reasonable value for the
number of atoms in 1.00 g of helium?
a. 4.1 x 10-23
c. 1.5 x 1023
b. 4.0
d. 1.5 x 10 24
number of moles = 0.25
number of atoms = NA x 0.25

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Example:
Determine approximate mass-to-charge
ratio of 80Br- .
e = -1.602 x 10-19 C
molar mass= 80 g, 1 mole contains NA of ions.
mass of one ion = 80 x 10-3/ 6.023 x 1023
me /e = 8.3 x 10-7 Kg/C
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