Software Quality

Measurement
A key element of any engineering process is
measurement.
We use measures to better understand the
attributes of the models that we create and to
assess the quality of the engineered products
or systems that we build.
Measurement is the process by which numbers
or symbols are assigned to the attributes of
entities in the real world in such a way as to
define them according to clearly defined rules
 SOFTWARE QUALITY
High-quality software is an important goal.
But how do we define quality?
The definition serves to emphasize three important
points:
1. Software requirements are the foundation from which
quality is measured. Lack of conformance to
requirements is lack of quality
2. Specified standards define a set of development
criteria that guide the manner in which software is
engineered. If the criteria are not followed, lack of
quality will almost surely result.
3. There is a set of implicit requirements that often goes
unmentioned (e.g., the desire for ease of use). If
software conforms to its explicit requirements but fails
to meet implicit requirements, software quality is
suspect.
McCalls Quality Factors
The factors that affect software
quality can be categorized in two
broad groups:
(1) factors that can be directly measured
(e.g., defects per function-point)
(2) factors that can be measured only
indirectly (e.g., usability or
maintainability).
McCalls Quality Factors
Software quality factors, focus on
three important aspects of a
software product:
its operational characteristics,
its ability to undergo change,

and its adaptability to new

environments.
McCalls Quality Factors
 McCalls Quality Factors
McCall and his colleagues provide the
following descriptions:
Correctness. The extent to which a program
satisfies its specification and fulfills the
customer's mission objectives.
Reliability. The extent to which a program
can be expected to perform its intended
function with required precision. [It should
be noted that other, more complete
definitions of reliability have been proposed.
 McCalls Quality Factors
Efficiency. The amount of computing resources
and code required by a program to perform its
function.
Integrity. Extent to which access to software or
data by unauthorized persons can be
controlled.
Usability. Effort required to learn, operate,
prepare input, and interpret output of a
program.
Maintainability. Effort required to locate and
fix an error in a program.
Flexibility. Effort required to modify an
operational program.
 McCalls Quality Factors
Testability. Effort required to test a program
to ensure that it performs its intended
function.
Portability. Effort required to transfer the
program from one hardware and/or software
system environment to another.
Reusability. Extent to which a program [or
parts of a program] can be reused in other
applicationsrelated to the packaging and
scope of the functions that the program
performs.
Interoperability. Effort required to couple one
system to another.
McCalls Quality Factors
Many of the metrics defined by
McCall et al. can be measured only
subjectively. The metrics may be in
the form of a checklist that is used
to "grade" specific attributes of the
software. The grading scheme
proposed by McCall et al. is a 0 (low)
to 10 (high) scale.
 Grading Scheme
Metrics
The following metrics are used in the grading scheme:
Auditability. The ease with which conformance to
standards can be checked.
Accuracy. The precision of computations and control.
Communication commonality. The degree to which
standard interfaces, protocols, and bandwidth are used.
Completeness. The degree to which full implementation
of required function has been achieved.
Conciseness. The compactness of the program in terms
of lines of code.
Consistency. The use of uniform design and
documentation techniques throughout the software
development project.
Data commonality. The use of standard data structures
and types throughout the program.
 Error tolerance. The damage that occurs when the
program encounters an error.
Execution efficiency. The run-time performance of a
program.
Expandability. The degree to which architectural, data, or
procedural design can be extended.
Generality. The breadth of potential application of program
components.
Hardware independence. The degree to which the software
is decoupled from the hardware on which it operates.
Instrumentation. The degree to which the program
monitors its own operation and identifies errors that do
occur.
Modularity. The functional independence (Chapter 13) of
program components.
Operability. The ease of operation of a program.
 Security. The availability of mechanisms that control
or protect programs and data.
Self-documentation. The degree to which the source
code provides meaningful documentation.
Simplicity. The degree to which a program can be
understood without difficulty.
Software system independence. The degree to which
the program is independent of nonstandard
programming language features, operating system
characteristics, and other environmental constraints.
Traceability. The ability to trace a design
representation or actual program component back to
requirements.
Training. The degree to which the software assists in
enabling new users to apply the system.
 FURPS
Hewlett-Packard [GRA87] developed a set of software
quality factors that has been given the acronym
FURPS Functionality, Usability, Reliability,
Performance, and Supportability.
The FURPS quality factors draw liberally from earlier
work, defining the following attributes for each of the
five major factors:
Functionality is assessed by evaluating the feature
set and capabilities of the program, the generality of
the functions that are delivered, and the security of
the overall system.
Usability is assessed by considering human factors,
overall aesthetics, consistency, and documentation.
Reliability is evaluated by measuring the frequency
and severity of failure, the accuracy of output results,
the mean-time-to-failure (MTTF), the ability to
recover from failure, and the predictability of the
program.
 FURPS
Performance is measured by processing speed,
response time, resource consumption,
throughput, and efficiency.
Supportability combines the ability to extend
the program (extensibility), adaptability,
serviceabilitythese three attributes represent
a more common term, maintainabilityin
addition, testability, compatibility, configurability
(the ability to organize and control elements of
the software configuration, Chapter 9), the ease
with which a system can be installed, and the
ease with which problems can be localized.
 ISO 9126 Quality Factors
The ISO 9126 standard was developed in an
attempt to identify the key quality attributes for
computer software. The standard identifies six
key quality attributes:
Functionality. The degree to which the software
satisfies stated needs as indicated by the
following subattributes: suitability, accuracy,
interoperability, compliance, and security.
Reliability. The amount of time that the software
is available for use as indicated by the following
subattributes: maturity, fault tolerance,
recoverability.
Usability. The degree to which the software is
easy to use as indicated by the following
subattributes: understandability, learnability,
operability.
 ISO 9126 Quality Factors
Efficiency. The degree to which the software
makes optimal use of system resources as
indicated by the following subattributes: time
behavior, resource behavior.
Maintainability. The ease with which repair
may be made to the software as indicated by
the following subattributes: analyzability,
changeability, stability, testability.
Portability. The ease with which the software
can be transposed from one environment to
another as indicated by the following
subattributes: adaptability, installability,
conformance, replaceability.
 Quality
Management
"What is software quality?"
The problem of quality management is not
what people don't know about it. The
problem is what they think they do know . . .
Software quality assurance (SQA) is an
umbrella activity that is applied throughout
the software process.
software quality is defined as
Conformance to explicitly stated functional and
performance requirements, explicitly documented
development standards, and implicit
characteristics that are expected of all
professionally developed software.
 Software Quality
Assurance
SQA encompasses
(1) a quality management approach,
(2) effective software engineering technology
(methods and tools),
(3) formal technical reviews that are applied
throughout the software process,
(4) a multitiered testing strategy,
(5) control of software documentation and the
changes made to it,
(6) a procedure to ensure compliance with
software development standards (when
applicable), and
(7) measurement and reporting mechanisms.
 Quality
The American Heritage Dictionary defines
quality as a characteristic or attribute of
something.
Quality of design refers to the characteristics
that designers specify for an item.
Quality of conformance is the degree to which
the design specifications are followed during
manufacturing.
User satisfaction = compliant product + good
quality +
delivery within budget and schedule
 Quality Control
Quality control involves the series of
inspections, reviews, and tests used
throughout the software process to ensure
each work product meets the requirements
placed upon it.
Quality control includes a feedback loop to the
process that created the work product.
A key concept of quality control is that all work
products have defined, measurable
specifications to which we may compare the
output of each process.
 Quality Assurance
Quality assurance consists of the
auditing and reporting functions of
management.
The goal of quality assurance is to
provide management with the data
necessary to be informed about
product quality, thereby gaining
insight and confidence that product
quality is meeting its goals.
 Cost of Quality
The cost of quality includes all costs
incurred in the pursuit of quality or in
performing quality-related activities.
Quality costs may be divided into
costs associated with
prevention,
appraisal, and

failure.
 Prevention costs include
quality planning
formal technical reviews
test equipment
Training

appraisal costs include

in-process and interprocess inspection
equipment calibration and maintenance
testing
 Failure costs may be subdivided into
internal failure costs and
external failure costs.
Internal failure costs are incurred when we
detect a defect in our product prior to
shipment. Internal failure costs include
rework
repair
failure mode analysis
External failure costs are associated with
defects found after the product has been
shipped to the customer. Examples of external
failure costs are
complaint resolution
product return and replacement
help line support
warranty work
 SQA Activities
Prepares an SQA plan for a project.
Participates in the development of the
projects software process description.
Reviews software engineering activities to
verify compliance with the defined software
process
Audits designated software work products to
verify compliance with those defined as part
of the software process.
Ensures that deviations in software work and
work products are documented and handled
according to a documented procedure.
Records any noncompliance and reports to
senior management
 SOFTWARE REVIEWS
Software reviews are a "filter" for the
software engineering process (i.e)
reviews are applied at various points
during software development and
serve to uncover errors and defects
that can then be removed.
formal technical review, sometimes
called a walkthrough or an
inspection.
 Defect Amplification and
Removal
A defect amplification model [IBM81] can be used
to illustrate the generation and detection of errors
during the preliminary design, detail design, and
coding steps of the software engineering process.
 FORMAL TECHNICAL
REVIEWS
A formal technical review is a software quality
assurance activity performed by software
engineers. The objectives of the FTR are
(1) to uncover errors in function, logic, or
implementation for any representation of
the software; (2) to verify that the software
under review meets its requirements;
(3) to ensure that the software has been
represented according to predefined
standards;
(4) to achieve software that is developed in a
uniform manner; and
(5) to make projects more manageable.
 The Review Meeting
Every review meeting should abide by
the following constraints:
Between three and five people (typically)
should be involved in the review.
Advance preparation should occur but

should require no more than two hours

of work for each person.
The duration of the review meeting

should be less than two hours.

 The focus of the FTR is on a work product (e.g., a
portion of a requirements specification, a detailed
component design, a source code listing for a
component).
The individual who has developed the work product
the producerinforms the project leader that the
work product is complete and that a review is
required.
The project leader contacts a review leader, who
evaluates the product for readiness, generates copies
of product materials, and distributes them to two or
three reviewers for advance preparation.
Each reviewer is expected to spend between one and
two hours reviewing the product, making notes, and
otherwise becoming familiar with the work.
Concurrently, the review leader also reviews the
product and establishes an agenda for the review
meeting, which is typically scheduled for the next day.
 The review meeting is attended by the review
leader, all reviewers, and the producer.
One of the reviewers takes on the role of the
recorder; that is, the individual who records
(in writing) all important issues raised during
the review.
The producer then proceeds to "walk
through" the work product, explaining the
material, while reviewers raise issues based
on their advance preparation.
 At the end of the review, all attendees of
the FTR must decide whether to
(1) accept the product without further
modification,
(2) reject the product due to severe errors
(3) accept the product provisionally
A review summary report answers three
questions:
What was reviewed?
Who reviewed it?
What were the findings and conclusions?
 Review Guidelines
Review the product, not the producer
Set an agenda and maintain it.
Limit debate and rebuttal.
Enunciate problem areas, but don't attempt to
solve every problem noted.
Take written notes.
Limit the number of participants and insist
upon advance preparation.
Develop a checklist for each product that is
likely to be reviewed.
Allocate resources and schedule time for FTRs.
Conduct meaningful training for all reviewers
Review your early reviews.
 SOFTWARE RELIABILITY
Software reliability is defined in
statistical terms as "the probability of
failure-free operation of a computer
program in a specified environment
for a specified time
failure is nonconformance to
software requirements
One failure can be corrected within
seconds while another requires weeks
or even months to correct.
 a simple measure of reliability is meantime-
between-failure (MTBF),
where MTBF = MTTF + MTTR

The acronyms MTTF and MTTR are mean-time-

to-failure and mean-time-to-repair, respectively.
Software availability is the probability that a
program is operating according to
requirements at a given point in time and is
defined as
Availability = [MTTF/(MTTF + MTTR)] 100%
 STATISTICAL SOFTWARE QUALITY
ASSURANCE
Statistical quality assurance reflects a growing
trend throughout industry to become more
quantitative about quality. For software, statistical
quality assurance implies the following steps:
1. Information about software defects is collected
and categorized.
2. An attempt is made to trace each defect to its
underlying cause (e.g., nonconformance to
specifications, design error, violation of standards,
poor communication with the customer).
3. Using the Pareto principle (80 percent of the
defects can be traced to 20 percent of all possible
causes), isolate the 20 percent (the "vital few").
4. Once the vital few causes have been identified,
move to correct the problems that have caused
the defects.
 Assume that a software engineering organization collects
information on defects for a period of one year. Some of the
defects are uncovered as software is being developed. Others
are encountered after the software has been released to its
end-users. Although hundreds of different errors are
uncovered, all can be tracked to one (or more) of the
following causes:
incomplete or erroneous specifications (IES)
misinterpretation of customer communication (MCC)
intentional deviation from specifications (IDS)
violation of programming standards (VPS)
error in data representation (EDR)
inconsistent component interface (ICI)
error in design logic (EDL)
incomplete or erroneous testing (IET)
inaccurate or incomplete documentation (IID)
error in programming language translation of design
(PLT)
ambiguous or inconsistent human/computer interface
(HCI)
miscellaneous (MIS)
Data collection for
Statistical SQA