The Research Process

Outline 1/3
Research, Research Process,
Research Methodology
The Process of Research: Logical
Steps
The Research Problem
Identification
Characteristics of a good research problem
Researchability of research objectives
 Outline 2/3
Formulation of research objectives
Definition of research objectives
Characteristics of research objectives
Review of related literature
Delimitation of the research problem
Formulation of testable hypothesis
Identification of research variables
Construction of research design
Designing tools for data collection
 Outline 3/3
Designing plan for data analysis
Collection of data
Data processing
Data analysis and interpretation
Drawing conclusions and
recommendations
Writing research report
Reporting of research findings
 Research, the Research process,
Research Methodology
Research viewed as a problem
solving activity; follows a logical
series of steps
 Research Methodology controls the study
itself and the processes needed to realize
the study; controls and dictates the
acquisition of data, arranges them in logical
relationships, sets up a means of refining
raw data, contrives an approach so that
meanings that lie below the surface of those
data become manifest, and issues a
conclusion or series of conclusions that lead
to an expansion of knowledge (Leedy 1997).
 The Process of Research: Logical
Steps
The research problem: state clearly,
precisely in unmistakable terms
Identification of the problem: where to look?
Journals, books, abstracts
Repeat earlier studies to see if findings are consistent
Repeat earlier research under different conditions
Challenge findings or interpretation of prior research
Apply methods conventionally used in one area into
other related areas
Develop new and creative approaches by combining
work in two different areas to come up with a novel
approach to a problem
 Theses and dissertations
Ideas from mentor/professor
Reading assignments
Professional lectures, research colloquia,
seminars
Problems encountered in field or clinical practice
Personal or family experiences
Community problems
Rare/interesting occurrences which need
explaining
 Characteristics of a Research
Problem
Of great interest to you
Useful for people in a particular field
Novel
Lays foundation for further research
in the field
Can be completed in allotted time
Must use appropriate technology
No ethical or moral impediments
 Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Time-bound
Researchability of a problem
External factors
Novelty/avoidance of unnecessary repetition
Practical value of problem
Availability of materials
Personal factors
Training and qualifications
Time requirements
Availability of subjects
Availability of special equipment
Special working conditions
Hazards
Funds
Stating the Research
Problem
Clear
Complete
Grammatical
As few words as possible
 Welfare and childrens attitudes
Retirement plans of adults
Effects of pharmaceuticals on fish
embryos
 Formulation of research
objectives
Objectives reflect the questions the
researcher wants to answer
Serve as guides in specifying variables of
the study, choice of research design, data
to be collected, interpretation of results
Can be a statement or question
A study was conducted to determine the
relationship between obesity, hypertension
and the age of a person.
In question form?
 Characteristics of research
objectives
Clear, unambiguous, specific
Stated in measurable terms and should not
involve value judgment

General objective: generic statement which

describes in broad terms what the study wishes
to accomplish
Specific objectives: identify in detail and
measurable terms the aims of the study; contain
indicators on how the objectives will be met
gives direction to research process
To study diarrhea

To determine the role of

infant feeding in
diarrhea

To compare the incidence

of diarrhea among
bottle, breastfed and
mixed-fed infants
 General objective: to investigate the
histological effects of neem seed kernel
extract (NSKE) on mouse testis
Specific objectives
To identify the changes in testes histology due
to NSKE exposure
To determine the relationship between NSKE
concentration and abnormal sperm morphology
To provide a feasible physiological basis for the
anti-libido property of neem extract
Review of Related Literature
To get acquainted with existing studies
relative to:
Who have done work on the problem
What has been found
Research design utilized
Statistical analysis applied
Problems met and how they were resolved
To establish a rationale or a theoretical
or conceptual framework
 Delimitation of a Problem
Narrow the scope of the study
without becoming concerned with a
trivial problem
Assumptions, restrictions and
limitations must be explicit with
respect to the coverage of the study
Helps focus attention on valid
objectives and helps minimize the
dangers of overgeneralization
 Factors to consider
Scope
Time allotted
Cost and funding
Cooperation/coordination needed
from other institutions or researchers
Availability of research subjects
Availability of equipment needed
Ethical considerations
 Example
Impact of continuing education for health workers

The effect of continuing education activities conducted

by the DOH for its staff on their performance

The effect of workshops/seminars conducted by the

DOH for its staff on their ability to manage the
different programs of the DOH in the field

To determine the effect of the Master Trainors Course

conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the
participants to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate
the training programs they conducted in the field
 Formulation of Testable
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
A tentative explanation for certain
phenomena, or events which have occurred
or will occur (Gay, 1976)
States the researchers expectations
concerning the relationship between two or
more variables in the research problem
Testable statement of a potential
relationship between two or more variables
(McGuigan, 1978)
 A good hypothesis
In declarative form
In definite terms
Reflects the theory or literature that
it is based on
Brief, to the point
Testable
 Types of hypothesis
Null
Ho
Never true or established but can be possibly
disproved in the course of experimentation
No difference relationship between the
variables to be studied
May act as a starting point and as a
benchmark against which the researcher will
measure the actual outcome of the study
once data are collected
 Types of hypothesis
Research hypothesis
Ha
Alternative hypothesis
Relationship is always positive
 Examples
Ho: Vitamin C does not inhibit
chromosomal lagging.
Ha: Vitamin C inhibits chromosomal
lagging by 50%.

Ho: Cerebral artery bypass is as effective

as standard medical therapy.
Ha: Cerebral artery bypass is more
effective than standard medical therapy.
 Types of Research
Hypothesis
Non-directional: reflects a difference
between groups, but the direction of
the difference is not specified
Directional: reflects a difference
between groups and the difference is
specified
 Identification of Research
Variables
Variable:
Any trait/characteristic that
manifests differences irrespective of
whether the differences are
qualitative or quantitative
 Types of variables
Independent the treatment
variable; presumed to cause, effect,
influence or stimulate the outcome
Dependent outcome or response
variable
Extraneous by themselves produce
changes which may be mistaken to
be the effect of the independent
variable controlled, held constant
or randomized
The effect of carbon dioxide loading on
plant morphology

Independent:
Dependent:
Intervening:
 Construction of a Research
Design
Research Design
Represents the plan of attack in answering
the research objectives and in obtaining
relevant data
Areas of concern:
Selection and number of subjects
Control and manipulation of relevant variables
Establishment of criteria to evaluate outcomes
Instrumentation
Maximization of internal and external validity
 Factors to consider
Research objectives
Feasibility
Ethical considerations
Economy and efficiency
Internal and external validity
Internal validity
Extent to which investigator is able to
control the different biases affecting the
study and in the end, measures what he
really needs to measure
Did the experimental treatment really bring
about a change in the dependent variable?
Did the independent variable make a
significant difference?
External validity
The extent to which the investigator
is able to generalize the results of
the study

Are the results applicable to groups

and environments outside the
experimental setting?
Design the Tools for Data Collection

Experiments
Questionnaires
Interview schedule and
forms
 Design the Plan for Data
Analysis
Some researchers think about data
analysis only after data collection
Possible consequences:
Some important variables are either not
measured or are collected using a
measurement scale that is inconsistent
with the desired mode of data analysis.
Objectives are too ambitious or non-
measurable, given the nature of the data
collected.
Dummy tables
Drawn to help the investigator
conceptualize how the data are to be
organized and presented after they
are collected
 Collection of Data
Essential phase of the research
process
Researcher employs specialized
tools, instruments and procedures
depending on the method designed
for the activity
 Data Processing
Process the information gathered to
prepare for and facilitate data
analysis and interpretation
Editing of data collection forms and
coding of responses are usually done
in this stage
 Data analysis and
Interpretation
Involves quantification, description
and classification of data
Statistics plays a major role
Researcher must be familiar with
basic statistical concepts and
procedures and must know their
limitations as well as areas where
they may be appropriately applied.
 Drawing conclusions and
recommendations
summarize the discussion on the
research findings and make clear
concluding statements
identify major points that were not
raised in the present study and which
could lay the framework for future
research
Writing the Research Report
Prepare a report of different activities
undertaken, as well as findings
Report must be well-organized and
presented in proper form and style
Basic principles of technical report
writing are followed
Report of Research Findings
Publish findings in scientific journals
and news releases
Present results in scientific meetings