Chapter 2 :

Techniques of AC circuit
analysis and Power calculation
 INTRODUCTION
Alternating current (ac) is usually referred to sinusoidal
wave.

Analyzing an AC circuits usually requires three steps

which is:
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency
domain.
2. Solve the problems using circuit techniques (nodal
analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, Norton and
Thevenin)
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
 Table 1 can be used to transform elements from
frequency domain to time domain and vice versa.

Table 1

Time Domain Frequency Domain

I(t)=Imsin (t ) I = (Im/2 )
v(t)=Vmsin (t ) V = (Vm/2 )
R() ZR = R()
L(H) ZL= jXL = jL = j2fL()
C(F) ZC=-jXC=(1/jC)=(1/j2 fC)()
 Series-Parallel Circuits

The type of circuit that contains the combination of series

and parallel junction.
In this circuit, elements are connected both in series and
parallel.
To solve this type of problem, impedance must be
calculated first.
The impedance, Z represent the opposition which the
circuit exhibit to the flow of sinusoidal current. It is
measured in ohm ().
 Table 2 summaries the impedances and admittances of
resistor, inductors and capacitor (passive elements).

Table 2
Element Impedance Admittance

R Z=R Y = 1/R

L Z = jL Y = 1/j

C Z = 1/jC Y = jC
 Example:

By referring to the circuit below, calculate ;

a) The total impedance and draw the impedance triangle.
b) The total current that have been supply in the circuit.
c) IA by using current divider
Figure 1
Solution:
a) YT = 1 + 1 + 1
6+j12.5 5-j9.95 20
= 1 + 1 + 1
13.87 64.36o 11.14 -64.36o 20
= (0.12+j0.02)S
= 0.12 9.46o S
ZT = (YT)-1 = (8.33 -9.46o) = (8.22 j1.37)

Impedance triangle
b) IT = V = 240 0
ZT 8.33 -9.46
= 28.81 9.46A

c) IA = 240 0
6 + j12.5
= 17.30 -64.36A
Steady State Analysis of AC Circuit
In AC circuits, the analysis is performed in the same manner
as DC circuits analysis except it involves complex number.

These circuits can be analyse by using:

a) nodal analysis
b) mesh analysis
c) superposition theorem
d) Thevenins theorem
e) Nortons theorem
f) maximum power transfer

It is important to change the elements from time domain to

frequency domain before analysing the circuits.
 Nodal Analysis (revision)
There are a few steps to carry out for this analysis:

1. Change the circuit from time domain to frequency

domain. (refer to Table 1)
2. Determine the number of nodes in the circuit.
Choose one node to be the reference node.
3. Label the direction of current at each node except at
the reference node.
4. Write all the KCL equation at each node (except the
reference node).
5. Calculate all the values by using Cramer Rule or etc.
 Example:
Based on the figure below, find ix by using nodal analysis.

Figure 2
Solution:
Convert the circuit to frequency domain:
2 cos 4t 20 0
1H j4
0.5 H j2
0.1 F -j2.5

The circuit becomes

 Applying KCL at node 1,
20 - V1 = V1 + V1 V2
10 -j2.5 j4
(1 + j1.5)V1 + j2.5V2 = 20

At node 2,
2iX + V1 V2 = V2
j4 j2
but iX = V1 / -j2.5

after simplifying, we get

11V1 + 15V2 = 0
 By using substitution method,
V1 = 18.97 18.43volt
V2 = 13.91 198.3volt

Then the current IX is given by ;

iX = V1 = 18.97 18.43
-j2.5 2.5 -90
= 7.59 108.4

Transforming to time domain ;

iX = 7.59 cos ( 4t + 108.4) A
 Mesh Analysis (revision)
To carry out this analysis, several steps have to be
considered which are;

1. Change the time domain circuit to frequency domain

circuit.
2. Determine the number of mesh and label them.
3. Write KVL equation at every mesh. Solve these
equation using Cramer Rule or etc.
 Example :
Determine the current I0 in the circuit of Figure 3 using mesh analysis.

Figure 3
Solution:

Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain ;

(8 + j10 j2)I1 (-j2)I2 j10I3 = 0 1

For mesh 2,
(4 j2 j2)I2 - ( j2)I1 - ( j2)I3 + 20 90= 0 2

For mesh 3,
I3 = 5 3

Substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs.1 and 2,

(8 + j8) I1 + (j2) I2 = j 50 4
(j2) I1 (4 - j4)I2 = - j20 - j10 5
 Using substitution method for equation 4 and 5,

I1 = 1.79 -99.46 A
I2 = 6.12 -35.22 A

From figure, we know that

I0 = -I2
= 6.12 144.78 A

End of revision.
 Superposition Theorem
This theorem not only can be used in DC circuit but
also in AC circuit.

Steps to apply superposition principle:

1. Turn off all the independent sources except one

source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to
active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for others independent source.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all
the contributions due to the independent source.
 Example:
Find v0 in the circuit in Figure using the superposition theorem.

Figure 4
Solution :
Since the circuit operates at three different frequencies
(), it is appropriate to use superposition theorem. First

Let v0 = v1 + v2 + v3

For v1 ,
Set all soures to zero except 5V DC voltage source.
Using voltage divider,

- v1 = 1 (5) = 1 V
1+4
For v2,
Set to zero both 5V source and 2 sin 5t current source

10 cos 2t = 10 0
2H = jL = j4
0.1 F = 1/jC = -j5

Z = -j5 // 4 = -j5 x 4
4 j5
= 2.439 j1.951

Using voltage division,

v2 = 1 (10 0) = 10 = 2.498 -30.79

1 + j4 + Z 3.439 + j2.049
 To obtain v3, set the voltage sources to zero.

2 sin 5t = 2 -90
2H = jL = j10
0.1 F = 1/jC = -j2

Z1 = -j2 // 4 = -j2 x 4
4 j2
= 0.8 j1.6

By using current divider,

I1 = j10 (2 -90) A
j10 + 1 + Z1

V3 = I 1 x 1 = j10 (-j2) = (2.328 -80)

1.8 + j8.4
In time domain,

v1 = -1 V
v2 = 2.498 cos ( 2t - 30.79) V
v3 = 2.33 cos (5t - 80)
= 2.33 sin (5t + 10) V

Substituting value of v1 ,v2 and v3 in ,

V0(t) = -1 + 2.498 cos (2t 30.79) + 2.33(5t + 10)V

 Thevenins Theorem
The application of this theorem is in the same way as
they are to dc circuits
The only additional effort is to manipulate complex
number.
The frequency domain version of a Thevenin equivalent
circuit is in Figure below where a linear circuit is replaced
by a voltage source in series with an impedance.
 Example:
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit in Figure as seen
from terminals a-b.

Figure 5
 Find VTH.
Apply KCL at node 1;
15 = I0 + 0.5I0
I0 = 10 A

Apply KVL to the loop on the right hand side

-I0(2 j4) + 0.5I0(4 + j3) + VTH = 0
VTH = 10(2 j4) 5(4 + j3)
= -j55
= 55 -90V
 To find ZTH
Connect a 3A current source due to the presence of the
dependent current source.
Applying KCL at the node ;
3 = I0 + 0.5I0
I0= 2 A.

Apply KVL to the outer loop;

VS = I0(4 + j3 + 2 - j4)
= 2(6 - j)

The Thevenin impedance is

ZTH = VS = 2(6 - j) = 4 j0.6667
IS 3
 Nortons Theorem
The Norton equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure
below, where a linear circuit is replaced by a current
source in parallel with an impedance.
 Example:
Obtain current I0 using Norton theorem

Figure 6
 Solution :
To find ZN
Set the sources to zero
The impedances are short circuited,
ZN = 5

To find IN
Short circuited terminal a-b
Apply mesh analysis
For mesh 1
-j40 + (18 + j2)I1 (8 j2)I2 (10 + j4)I3 = 0 1

For supermesh
(13 j2)I2 + (10 + j4)I3 (18 + j2)I1 = 0 2

At node a, due to current source between meshes 2 and 3,

I 3 = I2 + 3 3

Adding Equation 1 and 2 gives

-j40 + 5I2 = 0
I2 = j8

From equation 3,
I3 = I2 + 3 = 3 + j8
 The Norton current is
IN= I3 =(3 + j8) A

I0 = 5 (IN) = 3 + j8 = 1.465 38.48A

5 + 20 + j15 5 + j3
 Maximum Power Transfer

A power supply that has an internal impedance ZS will

supply maximum power to load ZB when the impedance
load is a complex conjugate to the impedance power
supply.

This is due to the reactive load component that will

cancel reactive impedance and produce total impedance
of Z = (ZS + ZB) as a real number. The real maximum
power will flow in this during this situation.
 For maximum power transfer :
ZB = ZS*

Let ZS = (a + jb)

To ensure the maximum power transfer,

ZB = (a + jb)* = (a - jb)
Z = ZS + ZB = 2a = 2RB = 2Rs

and the load current ,

IL= VS is maximum
Z

The maximum power is,

Pmax = I2RB W
 Example:

For the Thevenin equivalent circuit below, find the value

of ZB in order to allow the maximum power transfer to
occur. Then, calculate the maximum power.

Figure 8
Solution :

For maximum power transfer :

ZB = ZTH* = (14 + j17)

IB = ( 5224)= 1.8624
28

PB = IB2RB
= (1.86)2(14)
= 48.43 W
 Power in ac circuit
For dc circuits, power generated is always constant at
any time. Hence instantaneous power, p measured at
any is equivalent,
P = V (voltage) x I (current)
For ac circuits, the formula is no longer correct as the
instantaneous power as the current and voltage changes
through time. So, there will be a few value of power used
in analysis of ac circuits.
Instantaneous Power and Average power

In a electrical circuit, power supplied to the load is define

as product of voltage and current across the load.
For ac circuit where voltage and current is in sinus:
v(t) = Vm cos(t+v)
i(t) = Im cos(t+i)
Where V and I are the maximum amplitudes (the peak
values) and and are the phase angles of the voltage and
current, respectively.
The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is:
P(t) = v(t)i(t) = VmImcos(t+v)cos(t+i)
The average power, in watts, is the average of the
instantaneous power over one period. It is given by:
P = 1/T 0T p(t) dt
 Average power
P = 1/T 0T VmImcos(t+v)cos(t+i) dt
= 1/T 0T VmIm cos(v- i) dt - 1/T 0T VmIm cos(2t +
v+ i)
= VmIm cos(v- i) 1/T 0T dt + VmIm 1/T 0T cos(2t + v+
i) dt
= VmIm cos(v- i)
Where cos(v- i) = cos(i - v), the difference in phase
angle is more important.
A resistive load absorbs power at all time but a reactive
load (L or C)absorbs zero average power.
 Apparent power
The apparent power, S is a product of the
rms values of voltage and current. It is so
called because it seems apparent that the
power should be the voltage-current
product, by the analogy with dc resistive
circuit.
S = VrmsIrms
 Power factor
The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference
between voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the
angle of the load impedance. It may also regarded as the
ratio of the real power dissipated in the load to the
apparent power of the load.
Pf = P/ S = cos(i - v)
i v is the power factor angle, since it is the angle
whose cosine is the power factor.
For a purely resistive load, V and I are in phase, i v =
0 and hence pf = 1. For a purely reactive load i v =
90 and pf = 0.
 Complex Power

Complex power,S (units in VA) is a product of the rms voltage

phasor and the complex conjugate of the current phasor. As a
complex quantity, its real part is real power P and its
imaginary part is reactive power Q.

S = (Vrms Irms) = VI*=P jQ

= | S | (VA)
For an inductive circuit the complex power would be
S= P + jQ = | S | (VA)
For a capacitive circuit the complex power would be
S= P jQ = | S | - (VA)
 Power Factor
The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is
also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

Power factor, pf = P/S = cos( v - i )

Where P is real power and Q is reactive power .

The angle v - i is called the power factor angle, since it is angle whose cosine is the
power factor. The power factor angle is equal to equal of the load impedance if V is
the voltage across the load and I is the current though it.

The power factor may be seen as that factor by which the apparent power must be
multiplied to obtain the real or average power. The value of pf range between zero
and unity. If a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so that
v - i = 0 and pf = 1, while a purely reactive load, v - i = 90 and pf =0.pf is said
to be leading and lagging. Leading power means that the current leads voltage which
implies a capacitive load. Lagging power factor means that current lags voltage,
implying an inductive load.
 Power Triangle
Inductive circuit

S = P + jQ
pf = cos = R/Z =P/S

Z
S
XL QL

P
R

Impedance triangle Power triangle

Capacitive circuit

S = P jQ
pf = cos = R/ |Z| =P/|S|

R P

Qc
Xc

Z S

Impedance triangle Power triangle

If Qc < QL ,the power triangle while be a inductive triangle ;

While Qc > QL , the power triangle is a capacitive circuit.
 Power Factor Correction
The process of increasing the power factor without altering the
voltage and current to the original load is known as power
factor correction.

Example:
when connected to a 120V(rms), 60 Hz power line, a load absorbs 4kW at lagging
power factor of 0.8 . Find the value of the capacitance necessary to raise the pf to
0.95.
P= 4 kW
36.87o = cos-10.8

P= 4 kW
Q= 3 kVAr

36.87o = cos-10.8

P= 4 kW
Q= 3 kVAr

36.87o = cos-10.8

P= 4 kW

-QC
 -QC

Q= 3 kVAr

36.87o = cos-10.8

P= 4 kW
Q2
36.87o = cos-10.8

P= 4 kW
Q2
cos-10.9

P= 4 kW
Q2
cos-10.9

P= 4 kW
Example:
when connected to a 120V(rms), 60 Hz power line, a load absorbs 4kW at lagging
power factor of 0.8 . Find the value of the capacitance necessary to raise the pf to
0.95.

Solution
When pf =0,
Cos 1 = 0.8, 1= 36.87
S1 = P/ Cos 1 = 4000/0.8 = 5000 VA
Therefore Q1 = S1 sin 1 = 5000 sin36.87 = 3000 VAR
When pf = 0.95

Cos 2 = 0.95, 2= 18.19

S2 = P/cos 2 = 4000/0.95 = 4210.5 VA

Therefore Q2 = S2 sin 2 = 1314.4 VAR

The difference between the reactive powers,

Qc = Q1 - Q2 = 3000-1314.4 = 1685.6 VAR

And

C = Qc / Vrms = 1685.6/ 2 x 60x 120 = 310.5 F

The end