SOLID FUELS

Solid Fuels

The natural solid fuels are wood, peat, lignite

or brown coal, bituminous coal and
anthracite coal.

The prepared solid fuels are wood charcoal,

coke, briquette coal and pulverized coal.
Wood
Wood
At once it was extensively used as fuel. It
consists of mainly carbon and hydrogen.

Wood has been the main source of the fuel until

the recent times on account of its relatively rapid
growth and production and ease of obtaining and
supplies.

The large scale deforestation and the increasingly

large demand of energy by industries lead to
more extensive use of other types of fuel.
Wood
Freshly cut wood contains greater content of
the water which is 25-30% then dry which has
15% of water content.

Its heating value is directly proportional to

the water content.

Wood mainly consists of cellulose and lingo-

cellulose as well as some cell sap associated
with traces of mineral ash.
Wood
On the dry and ash free basis the average
composition of the wood is 50% carbon, 43%
Oxygen,, 6% Hydrogen and 1% nitrogenous
and resinous material.

As a rule, the dry wood is very combustible

and easily kindled and burned with a long
non-smoky flame.

It give maximum heat intensity very quickly.

Wood
However the calorific value of the wood is only
19.7 to 21.3 MJ/Kg, (4710 to 5085 Kcal/Kg).

The calorific value of wood varies with its kind

and moisture content.

The ash content of the wood is very low and

lies in the range of 0.3% to 0.6%.

Wood is largely used as domestic fuel.

Wood
It is rarely used in industry except where dirt
and smoke are undesirable.

Due to its high flame emissive, it is

preferentially used for space heating.

The wood is converted into coal when burnt in

the absence of air.

Wood charcoal is obtained by it destructive

distillation of the wood.
Wood
The carbonization is performed usually in
closed retort. The charcoal is not pure carbon
because even when the carbonization is
conducted at high temperature, it rapidly
absorbs some gas and moisture.

It also contains some inorganic residues

derived from the from the wood.

Charcoal was widely used for metallurgical

operations formerly. But it has been replaced
by coke excepting for some special application.
Wood
The major use of the charcoal today is for
producing the activated carbon which find
extensive application in the decolonization
(e.g. in sugar industry)., adsorption of gasses
and vapors and recovery of solvent from the
gases and air.

Charcoal is used in the production of CaC2,

Ferro Alloys and especially quality pig iron in
small furnaces.
Peat
Peat
It is a spongy humid substance found in
boggy land.

It has a characteristic odor.

Peat is considered as the first step in the

conversion of vegetable debris to coal and is
produced under water-logged areas under
the action of fungi and anaerobic reaction.
Peat
It founds in high altitudes.

Three main types UPLAND TYPE consisting mainly

of decomposed heath (a low evergreen shrub of
the family Ericaceae; has small bell-shaped pink or
purple flowers) and mosses (tiny leafy-stemmed
flowerless plants), LOWLAND TYPE derived from
sedges (grass like trees), grasses and willows
(shedding foliage of trees) and FOREST PEAT
formed from accumulation of leaves, twigs (a small
branch or division of a branch) etc.
Peat
It is mostly found in the tropical countries.
USSR (42% of world peat), Ireland, UK, Canada,
Finland, Siberia, France, Germany and Italy.

Freshly cut peat may contain up to 90% water,

which is reduced to 15-20% by air drying.

Most peat blocks contains 20-25% of moisture.

Peat
Utilization of peat depends upon its economical
drying.

Calorific value of the dry peat is 23000 KJ/Kg. or

almost 5450 Kcal/Kg.

Peat as such is only used as local fuel, and is not

considered as economical fuel because of cost of
drying and handling and transportation as it is
voluminous, relatively low calorific value and because
of its property of getting powdered during burning.
Peat
It is mostly used by briquette with other substances,
as domestic fuel.

Carbonization of peat at low temperatures (500-600

C) produces char oils and light spirit, and under
o

proper condition it may yield coke and gasses.

It is used as domestic fuel mostly in Europe as fuel

for domestic appliances (Cooker and Space
Heaters), for steam raising for thermal insulation,
packing, gas purification, and soil conditioning,
Russia use it for power generation as well due to
shortage of coal.
Lignite or brown coal
Lignite or brown coal

Intermediate stage between peat and black

coal

Moisture content ranges from 35 to 50%.

Carbon content on dry and ash free bases

ranges from 60 to 75%. While oxygen is over
20%.

They have high volatile matters from 48% to

50% and ash content up to 4% or more.
Lignite or brown coal

Occurs at shallow depths and obtained by

open cast mining.

Because of large volatile matters they burn

with long smoky flame.

They tend to break in small pieces on drying.

Their calorific value is only in the range of 24.3

to 29.3 MJ/Kg (5800-7000 Kcal/Kg on dry ash
free basis.
Lignite or brown coal

Lignites absorbs oxygen readily on exposure to air

and get spontaneous ignition.

Not considered as good fuel but better then peat.

They are made in briquettes after dehydration and

marketed as such or after carbonization.

They are used in power plants and in production of

producer gas.
Lignite or brown coal

Maximum carbonization gives tar and

Ammonium Sulfate, tar on further
hydrogenation gives motor sprit and
Ammonium Sulfate is used as fertilizer.

On basis of maturity and external

characteristics they are classified as

Australian Morewel Brown Coal

Wood Brown Coal (e.g Italian Valderno Brown Coal)
Laminated Lignites which are rather black.
Lignite or brown coal

Brown varieties tends to darken on

exposure to the air.

Large amount is used in Russia and

Germany for steam raising.

Coal in Thar Pakistan is also lignite but

with greater content of water.
Sub Bituminous coal
Sub Bituminous coal

Forms a group in between lignite and

bituminous coal

They are harder and denser than lignite.

Black in colour with dull waxy luster.

Moisture content is 12-25%.

Sub Bituminous coal

Calorific value 7000 Kcals/Kg.

Carbon content 75-83%

Oxygen 10-20%.
Bituminous coal
Bituminous coal

These coals burn with smoky yellow flame

like bitumen.

Product of distillation is coal tar which is

bituminous in nature.

Black in color with banded appearance,

laminated structure and cubical fracture.

Calorific value 8000-8500 Kcals/Kg.

Bituminous coal

Carbon content 78-90%

Volatile matter 20-45%

Oxygen 10-20%.

May posses the property of caking (strong,

medium or weak) or may be non caking.
Bituminous coal

Easy to handle and good in heating

values.

They are widely used in the world for

domestic, industrial, steam raising,
coke and gas production and by
product manufactures.
Semi-Bituminous coal
Semi-Bituminous coal

Forms a group in between anthracite

and bituminous coal.

Characterized to have low volatile

matters (9-20)

Calorific value 8600 Kcals/Kg.

Semi-Bituminous coal

Carbon content 90-93%

Used for manufacture of coke.

Anthracite Coal
Anthracite coal

Considered higher rank of coal.

Maximum percentage of carbon (92-96%).

Are black hard and lustrous and have

conchoidal fracture.

Low volatile matters (about 6%) so very little

flame produced which is non smoky and blue
in color.
Anthracite coal
Calorific value is 8600 Kcal/kg.

They burn with intense local heating.

Due to smokeless combustion they used for

domestic heating

Used in metallurgical purposes, naval purposes,

slow combustion stoves, central heating furnaces,
producer gas production etc also for manufacture of
cathodes and as medium to filter water.
Analysis of Coal
 The most important property of coal is that, it
combusts.
When pure carbon and hydrocarbons of coal
burns completely, only two products are formed
i.e. CO2 and H2O. During this chemical reaction
relatively large amount of heat is produced.
The energy value of coal / fuel content is the
amount of potential energy in coal that can be
converted into actual heating ability.
 The value can be calculated and compared with
different grades or ranks of coal or even with
other materials. Different grades of coal
produces different amount of heat for a given
mass of fuel.
The grade of a sample of coal does not
previously define its chemical composition, so
calculating the actual usefulness of coal as a
fuel requires analysis.
There are two methods: ultimate analysis and
proximate analysis.
Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis can be determined with a
simple apparatus. It may be noted that proximate
has no connection with the word approximate.

The parameters of proximate analysis are:

Moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon.

The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile

combustible matter directly contribute to the
heating value of coal.
Proximate Analysis
Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generator
during burning.
High volatile matter content indicates easy
ignition of fuel.
The ash content is important in the design of the
furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution
control equipment and ash handling systems of
a furnace.
Proximate Analysis
Moisture
The amount of moisture present in the coal
either in free form or in hydroscopic form
(inherent) is called moisture.
Determination of moisture is carried out by
placing a sample of powdered raw coal of
size 200-micron size in an uncovered
crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at
1082C along with the lid.
Proximate Analysis
Then the sample is cooled to room temperature
and weighed again. The loss in weight
represents moisture.
If 1gram of coal sample is heated in a furnace at
105 C to 110 C, then loss of weight is calculated.
Example:
1gram coal heated at 110C = 0.9gram,
The loss of 0.1 gram of coal shows the presence
of 10% moisture.
Proximate Analysis
Volatile Matter
The percentage of gaseous products,
exclusive of moisture in analysis sample
which are released under specific
conditions of test. It is determined by loss
of weight under rigidity control conditions.
Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed,
placed in a covered crucible, and heated in
a furnace at 900 15C.
Proximate Analysis
The sample is cooled and weighed. Loss
of weight represents moisture and volatile
matter. The remainder is coke (fixed
carbon and ash).
If sample of 0.9 gram of coal is heated in
moisture free furnace for only 7 minutes.
VM= initial weight of sample final weight
of sample
Proximate Analysis
For example, the initial wt. of sample is 0.9
gram and final wt. is 0.5 gram, then the
remaining sample will be 0.4 gram, which
means sample contains 40% of volatile
matter.
Proximate Analysis
Ash
Inorganic residue remaining after ignition of
combustible substances is called ash.
The cover from the crucible used in the last
test is removed and the crucible is heated
over the Bunsen burner until all the carbon is
burned.
The residue is weighed, which is the
incombustible ash.
Proximate Analysis
If the sample is being heated at 400 C,
then the sample will be kept in a furnace
for one hour at 725 C.
Example:
Ash = initial weight of sample final weight
of sample (after burn)
1 gram 0.8 gram = 0.2 gram means
20%.
Proximate Analysis
Fixed Carbon
It is the resultant of summation of percentage
moisture, volatile matter and ash subtracted
from 100.
The difference in weight from the previous
weighing is the fixed carbon.
In actual practice Fixed Carbon or FC
derived by subtracting from 100 the value of
moisture, volatile matter and ash.
 Proximate Analysis

Fixed Carbon % = 100-moist % - VM % - Ash %.

FC % = 100 10 40 20 = 30 %.
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Fixed carbon:
Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace
after volatile matter is distilled off.
It consists mostly of carbon but also contains
some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen
not driven off with the gases.
Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of
heating value of coal.
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Volatile Matter:
Volatile matters are the methane,
hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, and incombustible gases like
carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal.

Thus the volatile matter is an index of the

gaseous fuels present.
Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to 35%.
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Volatile Matter
Proportionately increases flame length, and helps
in easier ignition of coal.
Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and
volume.
Influences secondary air requirement and
distribution aspects.
Influences secondary oil support
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Ash Content:
Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical
range is 5 to 40%
Ash
Reduces handling and burning capacity.
Increases handling costs.
Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
Causes clinkering and slagging.
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Moisture Content
Moisture in coal must be transported, handled
and stored.
Since it replaces combustible matter, it
decreases the heat content per kg of coal.
Typical range is 0.5 to 10%
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Moisture
Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and
superheating of vapour
Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
Aids radiation heat transfer.
 Significance of Various Parameters in
Proximate Analysis
Sulphur Content
Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally.

Sulphur
Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as
air heaters and economisers
Limits exit flue gas temperature.
 Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis)

The ultimate analysis determines all coal

component elements, solid or gaseous.
It includes the quantitative determination of C,
H, N, S, & O within the coal.
Other analysis includes apparent specific
gravity, forms of sulfur (organic, pyritic &
sulfate), and hard-grove grind-ability index etc.
 Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis)

The ultimate analysis determines all coal

component elements, solid or gaseous.
It includes the quantitative determination of C,
H, N, S, & O within the coal.
Other analysis includes apparent specific
gravity, forms of sulfur (organic, pyritic &
sulfate), and hard-grove grind-ability index etc.
 Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis)

The ultimate analysis is determined in a properly

equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist,
On the basis of proximate analysis we can calculate
ultimate analysis by Gothal`s formula.
H.Cv = 147.6 C + aV
where,
C = % of carbon,
V = % of volatile matter,
a is constant depends on the % of V.
Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis)

of V% 1-4 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Value of a 270 261 210.6 196.2 185.4 171 157.5 144

 Method of Calculating Ultimate Analysis

Carbon & Hydrogen

Carbon and hydrogen are determined by burning of
the sample in a stream of pure oxygen in combustion
apparatus.
Coal + O2 = H2O + CO2

Carbon and hydrogen present in a sample converted

into H2O & CO2 and they are absorbed by separate
absorbing tubes and tubes are weighted before and
after absorption.
 Method of Calculating Ultimate Analysis

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is determined by digesting 1g of coal in
flask with concentrated H2SO4, K2SO4, HgSO4.
Thus the nitrogen present in the coal is converted
into common salts, those salts are further distilled
with acid NaOH,
Therefore the percentage of nitrogen is calculated
from the coal.
 Method of Calculating Ultimate Analysis

Sulfur
Sulfur is determined by bomb washing obtained from
the combustion of a known mass of coal in bomb
calorimeter.
Ash
Ash is determined as by proximate analysis.
 Significance Ultimate Analysis

Carbon and hydrogen contributes directly toward

the calorific value of coal, higher their value, better
the quality of coal and higher calorific value.
Hydrogen is associated mostly with volatile matters
of the coal and thus influence the use of coal by
product manufacture.
Nitrogen in coal does not contributes any useful
value to the coal and since it founds in small
quantities (~1%), its presence is not of much
significance.
 Significance Ultimate Analysis

Sulfur present contributes in heating value, buts its

product (SO2 and SO3) have corrosive effect on
the equipment, particularly in presence of moisture.
Oxides of sulfur are undesirable from
environmental aspect.
Sulfur containing coal is not suitable for
metallurgical coke preparation as I effects the
properties of the metals.
 Significance Ultimate Analysis

Oxygen content of the coal is associated with

moisture, the lower the oxygen the greater is
maturity of coal and higher calorific value.
As the oxygen content increases, the capacity of the
coal to hold moisture increases and the caking
power decreases.
Rank of Coal
Anthracite coal
Rank of coal

The different stages of coalification are

called as Peat-Anthracite series.

Each stage in the above series is considered

to belong to higher rank of maturity then
their respective preceding member in the
series.

As coalification progresses, the percentage

of carbon and hardness increases.
Rank of coal

While the percentage of Hydrogen,

Oxygen, Moisture and volatile matter
generally decreases.

The calorific value generally increases

from peat to Semi bituminous coal,
there is slight fall in the calorific value
of the anthracite because the
percentage of hydrogen decreases.