Chapter 7 Respiration

Two main stages

External respiration
Mechanical process that ensures exchange of
gases
Inhalation & exhalation
Internal respiration (cellular respiration)
Biochemical process in which energy is made
available to all living cells

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 Energy requirement in living
processes
All living processes need energy
Reproduction
Respiration
Nutrition
Excretion
Growth
Responsiveness : related to nerves
Locomotion: movement

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Substrates in cellular respiration
1. Carbohydrates
Glucose energy (17 kJ/mol)
2. Protein
Amino acids energy (17kJ/mol)
3. Fats
Fatty acids energy (37 kJ/mol)

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 The main substrate for producing
energy
Glucose is the main substrate
In green plants, glucose is made during
photosynthesis
In humans & animals, glucose is obtained
through nutrition & digestion
Energy is released during cellular
respiration

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 Cellular respiration
Consists of
Aerobic respiration
Occurs in mitochondria
Anaerobic respiration
Occurs in cytoplasm

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 Aerobic respiration

Complete breakdown of glucose in the

presence of oxygen to release energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy 2898 kJ/mol
Energy released is used to make adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) & inorganic phosphate
ADP + phosphate + energy ATP

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 Anaerobic respiration
Occurs when
there is insufficient oxygen or
Blood cannot supply oxygen fast enough
In human muscle during strenous activities
running, cycling, swimming
Glucose lactic acid + energy
C6H12O6 2 C3H6O3 + 150 kJ/mol
Results in oxygen debt
In yeast during fermentation
Glucose ethanol + energy
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + CO2
Catalysed by enzyme zymase

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 Oxygen Debt
Phenomenon due to inadequate supply of oxygen to the
muscle during strenuous activities
Glucose is oxidised to lactic acid NOT CO2
Much less energy is released
Much of the energy is still trapped in lactic acid molecules
High concentration of lactic acid causes muscle cramps &
fatigue
Fast & deep breathing after exercise will supply oxygen
to oxidise lactic acid CO2 & water
oxygen debt refers to the amount of oxygen needed to
remove lactic acid from muscle cells

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 Compare & Contrast
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Oxygen requirement Yes No/minimum

Oxidation of glucose Complete Incomplete

In yeast
In muscle: cell:
CO2 , water & energy Lactic
Products Ethanol,
acid &
CO2 &
energy
energy
Location Mitochondria Cytoplasm
Energy released per
2898 kJ 150 kJ 210 kJ
molecule of glucose
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 Characteristics of respiratory
structures
1. Moist surface
2. Thin wall
3. Large surface area
All the above ensure efficient gaseous exchange
(uptake of O2 & release of CO2 ) by diffusion due to
concentration gradient
Unicellular organisms like Amoeba sp. do not need
specialised structure for respiration
High surface area per volume ratio is sufficient for
gaseous exchange to occur across the cell membrane

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Gaseous exchange in Amoeba sp.

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Respiratory structure of insects
Tracheal system
Consists of
Air tubes: tracheae (Sing. trachea)
Air pores: spiracles
Fine branches of tracheae: tracheoles
Trachea is made up of rings of chitin to prevent it from
collapsing
Tracheoles
Are large in number large surface area
Have thin wall
Are moist

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Tracheal system of an insect

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 Trachea & tracheole

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The respiratory structure of fish
Gills
4 pairs, protected by operculum
Composed of numerous filaments
Each filament
Consists of thin-walled lamellae
Has a rich network of capillaries
Countercurrent exchange mechanism
Water flows over the gills in opposite direction as
the blood in the capillaries of the lamellae
maximise gaseous exchange

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The structure of fish gills

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 The respiratory structure of
amphibians
Amphibians (like frogs) : live on land & in water
Gaseous exchange through skin & lungs
Breathing mostly through the skin
Thin & highly permeable
Has glands underneath which secrete mucus moist
Rich in capillaries to transport gas
Lungs
Consist of a pair of thin-walled sacs connected to the mouth
through glottis
Membrane of lungs are
Thin
Moist
Rich in blood capillaries

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The respiratory structure of a frog

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Respiratory system in human

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 Respiratory structures of humans

Structures Functions
Nasal cavities Filter, warm & moisten air
Nasopharynx Passage of air from nose to
throat
Pharynx (throat) Common passage for
Air into the trachea
Food into the oesophagus

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 Structures Functions
Glottis Opening for trachea that closes
during swallowing

Epiglottis Flap of tissue that guards the

glottis to ensure that no food or
solid enters the trachea

Larynx (voice box) Air enters it through glottis

Trachea (windpipe) Acts as passage for air to the

bronchi

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 Structures Functions

Bronchi Act as passage of air to the lungs

Bronchioles Passage of air to the alveoli

Alveoli Tiny air sacs which contain

respiratory surface for gaseous
exchange

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 Structure of alveoli

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 Lungs
Thin-walled elastic sacs
Enclose
Bronchioles & alveoli
Located inside the rib-cage in the thorax
Outer surface of the lungs & inner surface the
thorax are covered with the pleural membrane
Pleural membrane secretes pleural fluid which
act as lubricant to reduce friction between the
surfaces in contact during breathing
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 Breathing mechanism
Breathing
The process by which air is brought into
contact with the respiratory surface in the
lungs for gaseous exchange
Involves inhalation & exhalation

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 During inhalation (Inspiration/breathing
in)
1. External intercostal muscles contract
2. Internal intercostal muscles relax
3. Rib cage moves upwards & outwards
4. Diaphragm contracts & flattens
5. The volume of thoracic cavity increases
6. Air pressure in the lungs decreases
7. Air is forced into the lungs to fill the alveoli
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 During exhalation (Expiration/breathing out)
1. External intercostal muscles relax
2. Internal intercostal muscles contract
3. Rib cage moves downwards & inwards
4. Diaphragm relaxes & returns to original shape
(dome-shaped)
5. The volume of thoracic cavity decreases
6. Air pressure in the lungs increases
7. Air is forced out of the lungs from the alveoli

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 Gaseous exchange
Blood reaching the capillaries surrounding
the alveoli has
A lower concentration or partial pressure of O2
A higher partial pressure of CO2
Compared to that of the air in the alveoli
Hence, O2 diffuses from alveoli into the
blood & CO2 diffuses from the blood into
the alveoli
CO2 is expelled during exhalation
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Exchange of gases between blood
& body tissues

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 Transport of O2 in humans

In the lungs, O2 combines loosely with

haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
As oxygenated blood reaches the tissues
where partial pressure of O2 is lower, O2 is
released from the haemoglobin

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 Transport of CO2

Transported in 3 forms
1. As dissolved CO2 in blood plasma (7%)
2. As carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
3. As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) (70%)

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 Release of CO2 from tissues to
blood
At body tissues, CO2 diffuses blood
plasma red blood cells
CO2 reacts with water carbonic acid
(catalysed by enzyme carbonic
anhydrase)
H2CO3 acid dissociates H+ & HCO3-
HCO3- ions diffuse into blood plasma

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 Release of CO2 from blood to
alveoli
At the alveoli, HCO3- ions diffuse from
blood plasma into the red blood cells to
form carbonic acid
Carbonic acid breaks down CO2 & H2O
CO2 diffuses into the alveoli expelled
during exhalation

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 Composition of inhaled & exhaled
air
Composition Inhaled air Exhaled air

Oxygen 21% 17%

Nitrogen 79% 79%

CO2 0.04% 4%

Temperature Room temperature 37oC

Water vapour Variable 100% saturated

Dust particles Variable Absent

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 Exchange of gases between the
blood & body tissues
In the tissue capillaries, the partial
pressure of O2 is higher than that in the
tissues due to cellular respiration
Hence oxyhaemoglobin breaks down into
O2 which diffuses into the tissues
In the tissues, the partial pressure of CO 2
is higher than that in the tissue capillaries
As a result, CO2 diffuses out of the tissues
into the tissue capillaries lungs
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 Change of rate of respiration
Insufficient/low supply of oxygen to our
body can happen during:
Vigorous activity (swimming, running, aerobic
exercise)
Emergency situations (fear, excitement, anger)
It results in:
1. Increase in the rate of heartbeat
2. Increase in breathing rate
These take place to ensure enough supply
of oxygen to the body cells
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 Respiratory rate in different
situation
A resting person has
Breathing rate of 16 18 breaths per minute
Rate of heartbeat 60 70 beat per minute
During vigorous activity
Breathing rate : 30 breaths per minute
Heartbeat rate : 120 beats per minute
Increase in breathing rate ensures
Increased ventilation rate (i.e. the rate of gaseous exchange
the alveoli & blood capillaries)
Increase in heartbeat rate ensures
Delivery of enough oxygen & glucose to the body cells
Faster removal of CO2 from the cells

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 Regulatory mechanism of
respiration
Breathing
An involuntary process
Under the control of respiratory center in the
medulla oblongata of our brain
The center acts on the nerve impulses sent from
1. Central chemoreceptors located in the medulla oblongata
2. Peripheral chemoreceptors
Aortic bodies in the walls of aorta of the heart
Carotid bodies in the walls of carotid arteries in the neck

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 Role of chemoreceptors
When partial pressure of CO2 increases, blood
pH drops due to formation of more carbonic acid
Drop in pH is detected by
1. Central chemoreceptors
2. Peripheral chemoreceptors
nerve impulses to the respiratory center nerve
impulses to the diaphragm & intercostal muscles
contract & relax faster faster breathing &
ventilation rate faster removal of CO2 normal
blood pH

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Location of central & peripheral
chemoreceptors

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 Medulla
oblongata

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Importance of maintaining a healthy
respiratory system
Our lungs are in direct contact with the inhaled
air
Any harmful pollutant in the air will harm our
lungs
There is a strong link between smoking &
respiratory diseases
Cigarette smoke is full of harmful chemicals
(>4000) which include
Nicotine
Carbon monoxide
Tar

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 Diseases of respiratory system
Chronic bronchitis
Emphysema
Lung cancer
Throat cancer

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 Respiration in plants
Exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) between
plant cells & atmosphere occurs by
diffusion through
1. Stomata
2. Lenticels

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 Stomata
Found mainly in
Lower epidermis of land plants
Upper epidermis of aquatic plants
Usually open during the day when there is
light & close in the dark
Link the atmosphere with the intercellular
air spaces in the leaf

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Pathway of gases through a leaf

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 Lenticels
Pores found on the stems & roots
Surrounded by loosely packed cork cells
that allow diffusion of gases

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 Comparison between
photosynthesis & respiration
Respiration Photosynthesis

A catabolic process An anabolic process

Releases energy stored in organic Stores energy in organic molecule

molecule
Releases CO2 & water from Synthesise simple sugar from CO2
oxidation of simple sugar & water

Uses O2 & Releases CO2 Releases O2 & uses CO2

Involves enzymes & occurs all the Involves enzymes but occurs in
time the presence of light

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 Relation between respiration &
photosynthesis
Photosynthesis uses CO2 from respiration &
produces O2 needed for respiration
However, in complete darkness, plants only
carry out respiration & all CO2 produced is
released
As light intensity increases, some of the CO2
produced during respiration is reused for
photosynthesis
In complete daylight, plant must take in CO 2
from the atmosphere to keep photosynthesis
going as CO2 from respiration is insufficient

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 Compensation point
Compensation point is the light intensity at
which the rate of CO2 production during
respiration is equal to that of CO 2
consumption during photosynthesis
At compensation point all CO2 produced
during respiration is reused during
photosynthesis

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Light intensity & compensation
point

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