Aqueous Solutions

Electrolytes and Extent of

Ionization
Classification of water soluble solutes
1.Electrolyte
2.Non-electrolyte
Electrolytes are substances whose aqueous
solutions conduct electric current
Strong electrolytes are substances that
conduct electricity well in dilute aqueous
solution
Weak electrolytes conduct electricity poorly
in dilute aqueous solution
 Dissociation refers to the process in
which a solid ionic compound, such as
NaCl, separates into its ions in solution

Ionization refers to the process in

which a molecular compound
separates or reacts with water to form
ions in solution
 Three major classes of solutes are strong
electrolytes:
(1) strong acids,
(2) strong bases, and
(3) most soluble salts.
These compounds are completely or
nearly completely ionized (or
dissociated)in dilute aqueous solutions, so
they are strong electrolytes
 Acid can be defined as a substance that
produces hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous
solutions.
Base is a substance that produces
hydroxide ions, OH-, in aqueous
solutions.
Salt is a compound that contains a
cation other than H+ and an anion other
than hydroxide ion, OH-, or oxide ion, O2-
 Strong and Weak Acids
Ionize (separate into hydrogen ions
and stable anions) completely, or
very nearly completely, in dilute
aqueous solution.
 Weak acids ionize only slightly
(usually less than 5%) in dilute
aqueous solution
 Strong Bases, Insoluble
Bases, and Weak Bases
Most common bases are ionic metal
hydroxides
Strong bases are soluble in water and
are dissociated completely in dilute
aqueous solution
 Common weak bases are molecular
substances that are soluble in water
but form only low concentrations of
ions in solution. The most common
weak base is ammonia, NH3
 Solubility Guidelines for
Compounds in Aqueous
Solution
Solubility Guidelines
1. Compounds whose solubility in water is
less than about 0.02 mol/L are usually
classified as
insoluble compounds,
2. whereas those that are more soluble
are classified as soluble compounds.
3. No gaseous or solid substances are
infinitely soluble in water
Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions
 Binary molecular compounds involve two nonmetals
bonded together, such as PCl 3. Although many nonmetals
can exhibit different oxidation states, their oxidation
states are not properly indicated by Roman numerals or
suffixes.
Instead, elemental proportions in binary covalent
compounds are indicated by using a prefix system for
both elements.
The Greek and Latin prefixes for one through ten are
mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta, octa-, nona-,
and deca-.
The prefix mono- is omitted for both elements except in
the common name for CO, carbon monoxide.
We use the minimum number of prefixes needed to name
a compound unambiguously. The final a in a prefix is
omitted when the nonmetal stem begins with the letter
o; we write heptoxide, not heptaoxide.
 Binary acids are compounds in which H is
bonded to a Group 6A element other than O or
to a Group 7A element; they act as acids when
dissolved in water.
The pure compounds are named as typical
binary compounds. Their aqueous solutions
are named by modifying the characteristic
stem of the nonmetal with the prefix hydro-
and the suffix -ic followed by the word
acid. The stem for sulfur in this instance is
sulfur rather than sulf.
 Naming Ternary Acids and
Their Salts
Ternary compound consists of three elements
Ternary acids(oxoacids) are compounds of hydrogen,
oxygen, and (usually) a nonmetal.
Nonmetals that exhibit more than one oxidation state
form more than one ternary acid.
These ternary acids differ in the number of oxygen
atoms they contain.
The suffixes -ous and -ic following the stem name
of the central element indicate lower and higher
oxidation states, respectively
There are no common -ic ternary acids for the
omitted nonmetals
 Acids containing one fewer oxygen atomper
central atom are named in the same way except
that the -ic suffix is changed to -ous. The
oxidation state of the central element is lower by
2 in the -ous acid than in the -ic acid.
 Ternary acids that have one fewer O atom than
the -ous acids (two fewer O atoms than the -
ic acids) are named using the prefix hypo- and
the suffix -ous. These are acids in which the
oxidation state of the central nonmetal is lower
by 2 than that of the central nonmetal in the -
ous acids
 Acids containing one more oxygen
atom per central nonmetal atom
than the normal -ic acid are named
perstemic acids.
 Synthesis
Decomposition
Neutralization
Single displacement
Double displacement
Combustion
A chemical change: any change in which a new
substance is formed.

Evidence of a Chemical Change:

Release of energy as heat
Release of energy as light
Change in colour
Formation of a gas
Change in odour
1. Neutralization: Acid(H) + Base(OH) salt + H(OH)

2. Combustion: AB + oxygen CO2 + H2O

3. Synthesis: A + B AB

4. Decomposition: AB A + B

5. Single displacement: A + BC AC + B

6. Double displacement: AB + CD AD + CB
Synthesis reactions are also known as FORMATION reactions.
Two or more reactants (usually elements) join to form a
compound.
A + B AB
where A and B represent
elements
The elements may form ionic
compounds, like
Sodium metal and chlorine Sodium added to
gas combine to form sodium chlorine gas

chloride.
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
See pages 258 - 259
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Types: Synthesis
Example C + O2

C + O O O C O

C O O O C O
CC O O O C O
O O C O
C C C OC OOC C OCO
O OO CO O
OO OO
OOO
General: A + B AB
 OTHER EXAMPLES
1.Elements that form ionic compounds:
Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to
form magnesium oxide.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
2. Elements that form covalent compounds:
Nitrogen gas and oxygen gas join to form
dinitrogen monoxide.
2N2 + O2 2N2O
SYNTHESIS REACTION (iron + sulphur):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A5H6DVe5FAI
See pages 258 - 259
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Decomposition reactions are the opposite of
synthesis reactions.
A compounds breaks down into two or more
products (often elements).
AB A + B
where A and B represent elements
1. Ionic compounds may decompose to produce
elements, like the following:
Table salt, sodium chloride, can be broken down into
sodium metal and chlorine gas by melting salt at 800C
and running electricity through it.
2NaCl 2Na + Cl2
See page 260
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 See page 260
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
Types: Decomposition
Example: NaCl

Cl Na Cl + Na

General: AB A + B
 Types: Decomposition
Example 2HgO

O Hg Hg
+ O O
O Hg Hg

General: AB A + B
 2. Covalent compounds may decompose into
elements, like the following:
By running electricity through water, the water
molecules decompose into hydrogen and oxygen
gases.
2H2O 2H2 + O2

DECOMPOSITION
REACTION:
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=NddwtXEA_Ak

See page 260

(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Single replacement reactions replace one
element from a compound with another
element.
A compound and an element react, and the
element switches places with part of the
original compound.
A + BC B + AC where A is a metal, or
A + BC C + BA where A is a non-metal

See page 261

(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Types: Single displacement
Example: Zn + CuCl2

Cu Zn
Cl Cl + Zn Cl Cl + Cu

General: AB + C AC + B
1. When A is a metal:
Aluminum foil in a solution of copper(II)
chloride produces solid copper and aluminum
chloride.
2Al + 3CuCl2 3Cu + 2AlCl3
2. When A is a non-metal:
When fluorine is bubbled through a sodium
iodide solution, iodine and sodium fluoride are
produced.
Fl2 + 2NaI I2 + 2NaF
SINGLE REPLACEMENT:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hKtynbVtMKc
 Double replacement reactions swap
elements between 2 compounds that react
together to form two new compounds.
Two compounds react, with elements switching
places between the original compounds.
AB + CD AD + CB

See page 262

(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 See page 262
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Types: Double displacement
Example: MgO + CaS

Mg Ca Mg Ca
+ +
O S S O

General: AB + CD AD + CB
Two solutions react to form a precipitate (solid) and
another solution.
Ionic solution + ionic solution ionic solution + ionic solid.
AB + CD AD + CB
When potassium chromate and
silver nitrate react, they form a red
precipitate, silver chromate, in a
solution of potassium nitrate.
K2CrO4 + 2AgNO3 Ag2CrO4 + 2KNO3 silver chromate

DOUBLE REPLACEMENT:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opY3FLrPTa4
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Neutralization reactions occur when an acid
(most compounds starting with H) and a
base (most compounds ending in OH) react
to form a salt and water.
Neutralization reactions are a type of
double replacement.
Acid + base salt + water

HX + MOH MX + H2O
where X and M are elements
See page 263
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 1. Sulfuric acid is used to neutralize calcium
hydroxide:
H2SO4 + Ca(OH) 2 CaSO4 + 2H2O

2. Phosphoric acid helps to neutralize the

compounds that cause rust, such as iron(II)
hydroxide.
H3PO4 + 3Fe(OH)2 Fe3(PO4)2 + 6H2O

NEUTRALIZATION:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_P5hGzA6Vb0

See page 263

(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 Combustion reactions occur when a
compound or element react with oxygen to
release energy and produce an oxide.
Also sometimes referred to as hydrocarbon
combustion.

CXHY + O2 CO2 + H2O

where X and Y represent integers
METHANOL + oxygen:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98JuJ-G1qXY&feature=related
See page 264
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
1. Natural gas (methane) is burned in
furnaces to heat homes.
CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O + energy

2. An acetylene torch is used to weld

metals together.
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O + energy

3. Carbohydrates like glucose combine

with oxygen in our body to release Acetylene torch

energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
See page 264
(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson
2007
 MOVIE TO REVIEW: http://www.bcscience.com/bc10/pgs/videos_013_chemical_reactions.html

See page 265

(c) McGraw Hill Ryerson Take the Section 6.1 Quiz
2007
 Quiz
1. H 2SO 4(aq) +12KOH (aq) K 2SO 4(aq) +12H 2O (l)
2. 2Rb (s) +Br2(l) 2RbBr(s)
3. 2KI (aq) +F2(g) 2KF(aq) +I 2(s)
4. CaO (s) +SiO 2(s) CaSiO 3(s)
5. S(s) +O 2(g) SO2(g)
6. BaCO3(s) BaO (s) +CO 2(g)
7. HgS(s) +O 2(g) Hg (l) +SO 2(g)
8. AgNO3(aq) +HCl (aq) AgCl (s) +HNO 3(aq)
9. Pb (s) +2HBr(aq) PbBr2(s) +H 2(g)
10. 2 HI (aq) +H 2 O 2(aq) I 2(s) +2H 2 O (l)