Electrical Machines

Engr. Nauman Ali

M.E (Electrical-Power)
Course Details
Course Title : Electrical Machines
Course Code : EE-361
Credit Hours : 3+1
Hourly Tests : 3 30% (Average of all)
Quizzes : 2 10% (5 Marks each)
Assignments : 2 10% (5 Marks Each)
Final Exam : 50%

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Objective
Cover the concepts, construction, principles of operation &
characteristics of Electrical Machines.

Recommended Books
Stephen J. Chapman, Fourth Edition, Electric Machinery
Fundamentals
A. E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. & Stephen D. Umans, Sixth
Edition, Electric Machinery
B.L. Theraja, Revised Edition, A Textbook of Electrical Technology
Theodore Wildi, Sixth Edition, Electrical Machines, Drives, and
Power Systems

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Topics To be Covered
Basic Magnetic concepts and Terms
Transformers
DC Machines
AC Machines
Special purpose motors

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Electrical Machine?
A device which can convert
Mechanical energy into electrical energy
(Generators /Alternators)
Electrical energy into mechanical energy

(Motors)
AC current from one voltage level to other voltage
level without changing it frequency (Transformers)
Transformer is used for reducing the energy loss between the
point of electric power generation and the point of its use.

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Fundamental Principle
Electrical Machines (irrespective of AC or DC) work on the
fundamental principle of Faradays law of Electromagnetic
Induction.

Faradays Law
An EMF is induced in a coil when the magnetic flux linking
this coil changes with time.
or
The EMF generated is proportional to the rate at which flux
is changed.

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Two forms of Induced EMF
If the magnet is moved and the coil is made
stationery We call it as statically induced EMF This
case is referred to as Dynamically induced EMF.

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Concepts of Rotational Motion
Almost all electric machines rotate about an axis, called the
shaft of the machine

Because of the rotational nature of machinery, it is

important to have a basic understanding of rotational
motion
clockwise
(-ve)

Direction of rotation
(Angle of rotation)

counter clockwise
(+ve)

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Angular Position :
Angle at which an object is oriented, measured from some
arbitrary reference point.
Measured in radians or degrees.

Angular Velocity
Rate of change in angular position with respect to time
Used for describing shaft speed
Assumed positive if the rotation is in a counterclockwise
direction
Measured in radians per second, revolution per second,
revolution per minute

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Angular Acceleration
Rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time

Measured in radians per second squared

Torque
Torque is the twisting force on an object
The torque or twisting action on the cylinder depends on:
1.The magnitude of the applied force

2.The distance between the axis of rotation and the line of action of the force
(perpendicular distance)

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Concepts of Rotational Motion

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Concepts of Rotational Motion
If r is a vector pointing from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of the force &
If F is the applied force, then the torque can be described as

where is the angle between the vector r and the vector F

The unit of torque is newton-meters in SI units
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Newtons Law of Motion

In SI units, force is measured in newtons, mass in

kilograms, and acceleration in meters per second squared.
A similar equation describes the relationship between the
torque applied to an object and its resulting angular
acceleration.
This relationship, called Newtons law of rotation, is given
by the equation

where is the net applied torque in newton-meters and is the resulting

angular acceleration in radians per second squared
The term J serves the same purpose as an object's mass in linear motion
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 Work
Work is defined as the application of a force through a distance

For the special case of a constant force applied collinearly with the
direction of motion,

For rotational motion, work is the application of a torque through an

angle

If the torque is constant, then

The units of work are joules in SI and foot-pounds in the English

system

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Power
Power is the rate of doing work, or the increase in work per unit time

It is usually measured in joules per second (watts)

If the force is constant and collinear with the direction of motion,

power is given by

Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in rotational motion is

given by

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The Magnetic Field
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is
converted from one form to another in motors, generators, and
transformers
A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around
it

A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it

passes through that coil. (This is the basis of transformer action)

A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force

induced on it. (This is the basis of motor action)

A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage

induced in it.(This is the basis of generator action)

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Production of a Magnetic FieldAmperes Law
The basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current is
described by Ampere's law:

The magnetic field in space around an electric current is proportional to

the electric current.

For any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the
magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal to
the permeability times the electric current enclosed in the loop.

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Strength of Cores Magnetic Field
The magnetic field intensity H is in a sense a measure of the "effort" that a
current is putting into the establishment of a magnetic field

The strength of the magnetic flux produced in the core also depends on the
material of the core

The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the resulting
magnetic flux density B produced within a material is given by

B H
where, = magnetic permeability of material

ampere turns At
H
meter m
Henrys H

meter m
Webers
B 2
Tesla (T )
meter
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Permeability and Relative Permeability
Permeability or magnetic permeability ()is the measure of the ability
of a material to support the formation of amagnetic field within itself
[#]

It is the degree of magnetizationthat a material obtains in response to

an applied magnetic field [#]

Permeability of free space is given by 0 = 4 10-7 H/m

Permeability of any other material compared to the permeability of

free space is called relative permeability (r). It is unit less quantity as
it is the ratio of two quantities

r
0
0 r
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Significance of Relative Permeability
Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the
magnetizability of materials

For example, the steels used in modern machines have relative

permeability of 2000 to 6000 or even more

This means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times
more flux is established in a piece of steel than in a corresponding
area of air

Note

The permeability of air is essentially the same as the permeability of

free space

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Magnetic Flux Density and Magnetic Flux
The magnitude of the flux density can be given by
Ni
B H 0 r
lc
Now the total flux in a given area is given by

B dA
A

where, dA = differential unit of area

If the flux density vector is perpendicular to a plane of area A, and if the

flux density is constant throughout the area, then
BA
Thus, the total flux in the core due to the current i in the winding is

0 r NiA
BA (Webers)
lc
where, A = cross-sectional area of the core

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Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits
In electric circuits, it is the voltage or electromotive force that drives
the current flow

The corresponding quantity in the magnetic circuit is called the

magnetomotivee force (mmf)

This (mmf ) is equal to the effective current flow applied to the core

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Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits
Polarity of the mmf source

The positive end of the mmf source is the end from which the flux exits

The negative end of the mmf source is the end at which the flux reenters

The polarity of the mmf from a coil of wire can be determined from a
modification of the right-hand rule:

If the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the current flow in
a coil of wire, then the thumb will point in the direction of the positive
mmf

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Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits
Reluctance & its relations
In an electric circuit, the applied voltage causes a current I to flow

Similarly, in a magnetic circuit, the applied magnetomotive force causes flux to be

produced

The relationship between magnetomotive force and flux is

The reluctance of a magnetic circuit (At/Wb) is the counterpart of electrical

resistance

The permeance of a magnetic circuit is the reciprocal of its reluctance

Thus,
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Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits
Reluctance & its relations

From previous relations, we can write

Comparing from the basic equation (previous slide), the reluctance of the core
becomes

Like resistances, reluctances can be solved in series or parallel as well

using:

(in series) (in parallel)

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Fringing Effect of a Magnetic Field
This effect is observed when air gaps are introduced in the flux paths e.g.
in a core

If there are air gaps in the flux path in a core, the effective cross-
sectional area of the air gap will be larger than the cross-sectional area of
the iron core on either side

This extra effective area is caused by the "fringing effect" of the

magnetic field at the air gap

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Fringing Effect of a Magnetic Field

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Example.1
A ferromagnetic core is shown in Figure, Three sides of this core
are of uniform width, while the fourth side is somewhat thinner.
The depth of the core (into the page) is 10 cm and other
dimensions are shown in the figure. There is a 200 turn coil
wrapped around the left side of the core. Assuming relative
permeability of 2500. how much flux will be produced by a 1A
input current?

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Example.1 Fig.
Focus this figure to
calculate mean path
length of two regions.

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 Example.2
Figure 2 shows a ferromagnetic core whose mean path length is 40 cm. There is a small
gap of 0.05 cm in the structure of the otherwise whole core. The cross-sectional area of
the core is 12 cm2, the relative permeability of the core is 4000 and the coil of wire on
the core has 400 turns. Assume that fringing in the air gap increases the effective cross-
sectional area of the air gap by 5 percent. Given this information, find
(a) the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus air gap) and (b) the current required
to produce a flux density of 0.5 T in the air gap

H.W

Fig.2

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Types of Magnetic Materials
Different materials are affected differently by magnetic fields. Basic type of
magnetic materials are:
Diamagnetic Materials (e.g. copper, lead)
These materials are not or very weakly affected by magnetic fields
They are repelled by a magnetic field

Paramagnetic Materials: (e.g. lithium, sodium)

They are affected somewhat more strongly than diamagnetic materials
They become polarized parallel to a magnetic field

Ferromagnetic Materials: (e.g. iron, nickel)

These materials show strong attraction to magnetic fields
They become strongly polarized in the direction of the magnetic field
They retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed
A small extremely imposed magnetic field can cause the magnetic domains to line
up with each other and the material is said to be magnetized

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Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
The materials, generally termed as "magnets" are ferromagnetic materials
Permeability of FM materials is very high, up to 6000 times the permeability of
free space

Although permeability is constant in free space, this most certainly is not true
for iron and other ferromagnetic materials. This issue is discussed here

Suppose a direct current is applied to a magnetic core, starting with 0 A and

slowly working up to the maximum permissible current

The resulting plot of flux-magnetomotive force is shown below

Such a plot is called a saturation curve or a magnetization curve or a BH curve

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Saturation or Magnetization Curve-Description
At first , a small increase in the mmf produces a huge increase in the
resulting flux

After a certain point, though, further increases in the mmf produce relatively
smaller increases in the flux

Finally, an increase in the mmf produces almost no change at all & the curve
flattens out. This region is called the saturation region, and the core is said to
be saturated

In contrast, the region where the flux changes very rapidly is called the
unsaturated region of the curve, and the core is said to be unsaturated

The transition region between the unsaturated region and the saturated
region is sometimes called the knee of the curve

The flux produced is linearly related to the applied mmf in the unsaturated
region

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Saturation or Magnetization Curve-Description
The flux approaches a constant value regardless of mmf in the saturated
region

Since real generators and motors depend on magnetic flux to produce

voltage and torque, they are designed to produce as much flux as
possible

As a result, most real machines operate near the knee of the

magnetization curve

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Lenzs Law
The minus sign in the faradays law equation is an expression of Lenz slaw

It states

The direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that if the
coil ends were short circuited, it would produce current that would
cause a flux opposing the original flux change

OR

An induced emf always gives rise to a current whose magnetic field

opposes the original change in magnetic flux

Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it, a minus
sign was included in the Equation of Faradays Law

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Lenzs Law

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