Hydrological Cycle ProcessesSurface Runoff and Infiltration

Precipitation can flow over land

(surface runoff) to rivers and lakes or
infiltrate to the subsurface. Both
surface and ground water ultimately
flow to the sea.

The subsurface and surface flows are

also interconnected, i.e., water in the
subsurface can seep into lakes and
rivers and vice versa.

The water available in rivers and lakes

is known as Surface Water
Resources. The water available
underground is known as Ground
Water Resources.
Hydrological Cycle ProcessesSubsurface Water Resources
Water is generally available in the ground as soil
moisture (unsaturated strata) or in saturated soil
strata. The boundary between unsaturated and
saturated soil strata is known as the water table. In
rocky areas, water may be available in layers of
fractured/permeable rocks.

An underground layer of water-bearing permeable

rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials
(gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can
be extracted using a water well is known as an
aquifer.

The saturated soil strata extends from the water

table up to the bedrock, which in some areas may
extend several kilometers below the water table.
Aquifers are punctuated with semi permeable
(confining) clay layers.

The first aquifer is generally unconfined, i.e.,

extending up to the water table and hence open to
atmosphere. The second and subsequent aquifers
are confined and hence may be under pressure.
Hydrological Cycle Processes Surface Runoff

The major river basins of

India are shown.

Precipitation in any basin

will remain as surface
water in the basin, infiltrate
into the subsurface or will
be lost by evapo-
transpiration.

Inter-basin transfer of water

is limited and only possible
through ground water, since
aquifer (specially confined
aquifers) boundaries may
not necessarily coincide
with river basin boundaries.
Mechanical Weathering of Rocks
Mechanical weathering is the process of breaking rocks into smaller particles, i.e., sediments
without chemical change.

Frost Wedging: Expansion of cracks in rock as water in the crack freezes and
expands

Salt Crystal Growth: Salt crystal growth in cracks forces the crack walls further
apart.

Thermal Expansion and Contraction: Alternate Expansion and Contraction due to

diurnal or seasonal temperature variation

Mechanical Exfoliation: Fracturing due to the release of pressure in a rock layer after
the overburden has been removed by erosion or other processes

Growth Of Plant Roots: Plants grow in rock cracks. Growth of plant roots expands
the cracks.

Burrowing Animal Activities: Animals may burrow into rock cracks leading to
expansion of cracks

Abrasion: Collision and rubbing between rocks leading to formation of cracks

Mechanical Weathering Pictures
Rock-Water Interaction.Chemical Weathering of Rocks
Rock minerals undergo various reactions due to interactions with acidic water, and
atmospheric oxygen, resulting in disintegration of rocks, formation of soils and leaching
on cations and anions.
Interactions with Acidic Water
As mentioned before, rainwater contains H2CO3 and hence its pH is 5.6 or lower. The elevated
H+ concentration in rainwater (~ 25 times more) as compared to pure water is responsible for
hydrolysis of many rock minerals.
Reaction of acidic water with Orthoclase (alkali feldspar) is as follows,
2KAlSi 3O8 2H 9H 2 O Al 2Si 2O5 (OH) 4 4H 4SiO 4 2K
Al2Si 2O5 (OH) 4 : Kaolinite
H 4SiO 4 : Silicic Acid
Reaction of acidic water with Olivine is as follows,
Mg 2SiO 4 4H
2Mg
2
H 4SiO 4

Hydrolysis of Fe-Pyroxene is as follows,

4FeSiO3 O 2 +8H 2O 2Fe 2O3 +4H 4SiO 4
Fe 2 O3 : Hematite

In general, most primary alumino-silicate minerals will be weathered by hydrolysis to, 1)

Secondary minerals, e.g., clay and/or metal oxides and hydroxides, 2) dissolved silica, and 3)
dissolved metal ions. The clay and metal oxides/hydroxides may coexist with un-weathered
rock fragments, while the dissolved components will be leached away.
Hydrolysis.Secondary Minerals

Clay minerals: Kaolinite, Smectite , illite, Vermiculite, Chlorite, etc.

Aluminum oxides and hydroxides: Gibbsite, Diaspore, Boehmite

Iron oxides and hydroxides: Hematite, Goethite, Lepidocrosite, Limonite

Mn oxides and hydroxides: Pyrolusite, Romanechite, Manganite

Note that mechanical weathering breaks up rocks into smaller pieces, which are more
susceptible to hydrolysis due to the greater surface area exposed to acidic water. Also,
soluble silica (H4SiO4) and metal cations (e.g., magnesium, Mg2+, calcium, Ca2+; sodium
Na+; potassium, K+) released during hydrolysis are dissolved materials that become part
of the water.

The dissolved ions thus added to water may precipitate elsewhere and ultimately be
transformed to inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks. dissolved silica generally
precipitates as secondary silica away from the site of its production.

The carbonate and sulfate minerals are highly soluble compared to the alumino-silicates
The major carbonate minerals are calcite and dolomite. The major sulfate mineral is
gypsum. Na- and K- generally deposit as chlorides or sulfates. These minerals are called
evaporates, which are readily soluble in water and hence only found in deserts.