Geological Structures

Due to tectonic forces, earths crust is often under tremendous stress. Various kinds of
stresses, i.e., compressive, tensile and shear is possible.

The stresses are very high at plate boundaries, i.e., where plates are colliding or diverging
from each other. However, localized stresses can occur in the crust even far away from
plate boundaries.

Rocks under stress develop strain, i.e., deform. This deformation may be elastic or plastic.
Plastic deformation results in a permanent change in the shape of the rock. High stress can
even lead to rock failure, i.e., development of cracks in the rock and relative movement of
rocks along the failure plane.

Geological structures are the features observed in the earths crust caused as a result of rock
deformations and rock failures and in some cases, intrusion of magma into the cracks thus
produced.

We are going to talk about the following Geological Structures commonly seen in rocks
under stress,

1) Folds; 2) Faults; 4) Cracks or Joints;

5) Veins 5) Dike; 6) Laccolith

Folds
Folds may occur when a rock strata faces high compression
stress. This may be viewed as plastic deformation of the
rock strata.

Folding results in the

formation of anticlines (ridges)
and synclines (troughs) in the
rock strata.

Folds need not be symmetrical, they may also be asymmetrical, overturned or recumbent
Overturned Fold Recumbent Fold

2-D folding leads to the formation of

domesequivalent to anticline in 1-D folding
basins.equivalent to syncline in 1-D folding
Faults
A Strike-Slip Fault A Dip-Slip Fault

Horst and Graben

Rift Valley
Cracks or Joints or Fractures

Joints vs Faults
Both joints and faults are classified as fractures or discontinuities. However, joints are smaller
compared to faults.

Joints have no movement therefore cause none or very little displacement while faults have
lateral movement that cause displacement.

Faults are formed because of constant tectonic movement while joints are formed when rocks
are locally stressed.

Faults can cause deadly earthquakes and tsunamis while joints rarely pose any threat to
civilization.
 Veins Dike Laccolith

A vein is a body of
crystallized minerals A laccolith is a sheet plutonic
within a rock. Veins rock injected between two
form when mineral A dike is a thick layer of layers of sedimentary rock.
constituents carried by vertical rock between older The pressure of the magma is
an aqueous solution layers of rock. It is formed high enough that the overlying
within the rock mass are due to the solidification of strata are forced upward,
deposited through Magma as it moves upwards giving the laccolith a dome or
precipitation. through the lithosphere mushroom-like form.
Earths Crust.made of Rocks
Rocks contain minerals.

A mineral is a solid, inorganic, naturally-formed substance that has a crystalline structure

and specific chemical composition

Pyrite
FeS2 Beryl
Be3Al2(Si6
O18)
Rocks are of three types:Igneous; Sedimentary; Metamorphic;

Igneous Rocks: Formed due to cooling and solidification of magma.

All rocks in the earths crust was igneous in nature

Sedimentary Rocks: All types of exposed rocks are transformed into sediments
due to the weathering process. Sedimentary rocks are
formed by the lithification of inorganic and organic
sediments deposited at or near the Earths surface.

Metamorphic Rocks: All types of rocks inside the earths crust may be
chemically transformed at high temperature and pressure
into metamorphic rocks
Rocks Created and Destroyed at Convergent Plate Boundaries

Volcanoes at Oceanic-Continental Crust Volcanic Island Chain at Oceanic-Oceanic

Convergent Boundaries Crust Convergent Boundaries
Rocks Created at Oceanic Divergent Plate Boundaries
Rocks.formed at Continental Divergent Boundaries

Volcanism.Lava Fountains
Volcanism Rift Valley
The Rock Cycle