Dynamic

Characteristics of
Instruments

P M V Subbarao
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department

Capability to carry out Transient

Measurements.
 Cyclic Input: Hysteresis and Backlash

Careful observation of the output/input relationship of an

instrument will sometimes reveal different results as the
signals vary in direction of the movement.
Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in
length as the direction of the applied force is reversed.
The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a
magnetic material.
This characteristic is called hysteresis
Where this is caused by a mechanism that gives a sharp
change, such as caused by the looseness of a joint in a
mechanical joint, it is easy to detect and is known as
backlash.
Hysteresis Loop
 Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument Systems

To properly appreciate instrumentation design and its use,

it is necessary to develop insight into the most commonly
encountered types of dynamic loading &
to develop the mathematical modeling basis that allows us
to make concise statements about responses.
The response at the output of an instrument Gresult is
obtained by multiplying the mathematical expression for
the input signal Ginput by the transfer function of the
instrument under investigation Gresponse

Gresult Ginput Gresponse

Standard Forcing Functions
Standard Forcing Functions
Standard Forcing Functions
 Characteristic Equation Development
The behavior of a block that exhibits linear behavior is
mathematically represented in the general form of expression given
as

d2y dy
...........a2 2 a1 a0 y x(t )
dt dt
Here, the coefficients a2, a1, and a0 are constants dependent on the
particular instrument of interest.
The left hand side of the equation is known as the characteristic
equation.
It is specific to the internal properties of the block and is not altered by
the way the insturment is used.
 The specific combination of forcing function input and
instrument characteristic equation collectively decides the
combined output response.
Solution of the combined behavior is obtained using
Laplace transform methods to obtain the output responses
in the time or the complex frequency domain.
 Behaviour of the Instrument

Zero order a0 y x(t )

dy
First order a1 a0 y x(t )
dt
d2y dy
Second order a2 2 a1 a0 y x(t )
dt dt
nth order

dny d n 1 y d2y dy
an n an 1 n 1 ...........a2 2 a1 a0 y x(t )
dt dt dt dt
 Behaviour of the Block
Note that specific names have been given to each order.
The zero-order situation is not usually dealt because it has no
time-dependent term and is thus seen to be trivial.
It is an amplifier (or attenuator) of the forcing function with
gain of a0.
It has infinite bandwidth without change in the amplification
constant.
The highest order usually necessary to consider in first-cut
instrument analysis is the second-order class.
Higher-order systems do occur in.
Computer-aided tools for systems analysis are used to study the
responses of higher order systems.
 Solution of ODE
Define D operator as
dy
D
dt
The nth order system model:

an D n y an 1 D n 1 y ...........a2 D 2 y a1 Dy a0 y x(t )

a D
n
n

an 1 D n 1 ...........a2 D 2 a1 D a0 y x(t )

The solution of equations of this type has been put on a systematic

basis by using either the classical method of D operators or
Laplace Transforms method.
 Laplace Transforms: Solution of ODE
The Laplace transform, is an elegant way for fast and
schematic solving of linear differential equations with
constant coefficients.
Instead of solving the differential equation with the initial
conditions directly in the original domain, the detour via a
mapping into the frequency domain is taken, where only
an algebraic equation has to be solved.
Thus solving differential equations is performed in the
following three steps:
Transformation of the differential equation into the
mapped space,
Solving the algebraic equation in the mapped space,
Back transformation of the solution into the original space.
Schema for solving differential equations using the
Laplace transformation
 Laplace Transforms; nth Order Equation

The nth order system model:

n 1
an D y an 1 D
n
y ...........a2 D y a1 Dy a0 y x(t )
2

Laplace Transform:

s n anY s s n 1an 1Y s ........... s 2 a2Y s a1sY s a0Y s

X s

s an
n s n 1
a n 1 .......... . s 2

a2 a1s a0 Y s
X s
 X s
Y s n

s an s n 1an 1 ........... s 2 a2 a1s a0

X s
y t n
1

s an s an 1 ........... s a2 a1s a0
n 1 2
 Laplace Transformations for Sensors

s a
n
n s n 1
a n 1 .......... . s 2
a2 a1s a0 Y s X s
Y s 1
n
X s s an s n 1an 1 ........... s 2 a2 a1s a0

Y s 1
Zero Order :
X s a0
Y s 1
First Order :
X s a1s a0
Y s 1
Second Order : 2
X s s a2 a1s a0
Generalized Instrument System : A combination of
Blocks

The response analysis can be carried

out to each independent block.
 Response of the Different Blocks
Zero-Order Blocks
To investigate the response of a block, multiply its frequency
domain forms of equation for the characteristic equation with
that of the chosen forcing function equation.
This is an interesting case because Equation shows that the zero-
order block has no frequency dependent term, so the output for
all given inputs can only be of the same time form as the input.
What can be changed is the amplitude given as the coefficient a0.
A shift in time (phase shift) of the output waveform with the
input also does not occur.
This is the response often desired in instruments because it
means that the block does not alter the time response.
However, this is not always so because, in systems, design
blocks are often chosen for their ability to change the time shape
of signals in a known manner.
 Zero Order Instrument: Wire Strain Gauge
R
Gauge Factor : K R
l
l

This is the response often desired

in instruments because it means
that the block does not alter the
time response.
All instruments behave as zero
order instruments when they give a
static output in response to a static
input.
Wire Strain Gauge
 Strain Gauge
A strain gauge's conductors are very thin:
if made of round wire, about 1/1000 inch in diameter.
Alternatively, strain gauge conductors may be thin strips of
metallic film deposited on a nonconducting substrate material
called the carrier.
The name "bonded gauge" is given to strain gauges that are glued
to a larger structure under stress (called the test specimen).
The task of bonding strain gauges to test specimens may appear to
be very simple, but it is not.
"Gauging" is a craft in its own right, absolutely essential for
obtaining accurate, stable strain measurements.
It is also possible to use an unmounted gauge wire stretched
between two mechanical points to measure tension, but this
technique has its limitations.
Wire Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers

In comparison with other types

of pressure transducers, the
strain gage type pressure
transducer is of higher
accuraciy, higher stability and of
higher responsibility.
The strain gage type pressure
transducers are widely used as
the high accuracy force
detection means in the hydraulic
testing machines.
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Small & High
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 First Order Instruments
A first order linear instrument has an output which is given by
a non-homogeneous first order linear differential equation

dy X s X s
a1 a0 y x(t ) Y s y t
1

dt a1s a0 a1s a0

In these instruments there is a time delay in their response to

changes of input.
The time constant is a measure of the time delay.
Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order
instruments.
 The time constant of a measurement of temperature is
determined by the thermal capacity of the thermometer and
the thermal contact between the thermometer and the body
whose temperature is being measured.
A cup anemometer for measuring wind speed is also a first
order instrument.
The time constant depends on the anemometer's moment of
inertia.
 Firstorder instrument step response

x(t ) b0t 0
b0
b0
X (s)
s

X s b0
Y s
a1s a0 s a1s a0
The complex function F(s) must be decomposed into partial fractions
in order to use the tables of correspondences. This gives
 b0 1 b0 a1
Y s
a0 s a0 a1s a0

b0 1 b0 1
Y s
a0 s a0 a0
s
a1

b0 1 1 b0 1 1
Y s y t 1

a0 s
a0 s a0
s a0
s
a1 a1

 b0 a0 t
y t 1 exp
a0 a1

a1
: time constant
a0
y t
b0
K : Gauge Factor K
a0

t
y t K 1 exp

Dynamic Response of
Liquidin Glass
Thermometer
 Liquid in Glass
Thermometer
volume
material
(106K1)
alcohol, ethyl 1120

VT Vbulb 1 T
gasoline 950
jet fuel, kerosene 990
mercury 181
water,liquid(1
) 50
Vbulb r l
2
bulb bulb water,liquid(4
) 0
water,liquid(10
) 88
water,liquid(20
) 207
water,liquid(30
) 303
water,liquid(40
) 385
water,liquid(50
) 457
 Thermometer: A First Order Instrument

Conservation of Energy during a time dt

Heat in heat out = Change in energy

of thermometer

Assume no losses from the stem.

Ts t Ttf t
Heat in = Change in energy
of thermometer
Ts t Instantaneous Temperatur e of the System

Ttf t Instantaneous Temperatur e of thermometric fluid

Ts(t) Ttf(t) 1
U
Rs Rcond
Rs Rcond Rtf
Rtf

heat in UAbulb Ts Ttf dt

Change in energy of thermometer: VbulbCtf dTtf

UAbulb Ts Ttf dt Vbulb Ctf Ttf

dTtf
VbulbCtf UAbulbTtf UAbulbTs
dt
 Step Response of Thermometers

VbulbCtf dTtf
Ttf Ts
UAbulb dt Vbulb Ctf

Time constant UAbulb
dTtf Ts
Ttf Ts stf s tf s
dt s
Ts
Ts tf s
s 1 tf s s s 1
s
 Ts Ts
tf s 1 1
s s 1 Ttf t 1 Ts
s s 1

Ts Ts
tf s
s 1
s

t
Ttf t Ts 1 exp
1
1
tf s Ts
s s 1

 t
Ttf t Ts 1 exp

Vbulb Ctf

UAbulb
 Response of Thermometers: Periodic Loading
If the input is a sine-wave, the output response is
quite different;
but again, it will be found that there is a general
solution for all situations of this kind.

VbulbCtf dTtf
Ttf Ts
UAbulb dt

s ,max
Ts Ts max Sin t s s
s
2 2
 s ,max
stf s tf s
s 2 2

s ,max
s 1 tf s
s 2 2

s ,max
tf s
s 2

s 1
2

s ,max
Ttf t
1

s s 1
2 2

 t
e Ts ,max
Ttf t Ts ,max sin t
1
2 2

2 2

1
tan 1
t

Ts,max- Ttf,max