A. Alpha particle - Particle. B. Beta particles - Particle. C. Gamma - Ray. What is the charges on Alpha particle, Beta particles particle and Gamma ray & compare their relative penetration? Charges on radiation are: - A. Alpha particle particle) : - Positive charge & less penetrating in comparison to particle & Ray. They can be stopped by a thin sheet of paper. B. Beta particles - particle) : - Negative charge & have definite range of penetration. Easily absorbed in the matter. C. Gamma ray: - No charge & highly penetrating. Gamma ray source Iridium 192
Iridium 192
Produced byneutronbombardment of Iridium191.The
radioisotope disintegrates toplatinum192 andOsmium192 andgives out beta particle andmedium energygamma rays.Itsrelatively lower energy radiation,high specific activityand reasonable activation time combine to make it an easily shielded powerful radiation source of small physical size.This isthemost used radioisotope. It is available asencapsulatedmetallic pelletsin medium weight, depleted uraniumshielded,remotelyoperated portable projectors Iridium 192 Iridium 192 properties : Half life : 74 Days. Energy:206 to612kev.Avgenergy :400kev. Equivalent to 600 kev X-rays.RHM : 470 mR / hr /Ci at1meter distance. Suitable for radiographyof6 to75mm Steel. Iridium 192 Cobalt 60
Produced by neutron bombardment of Nickel plated Cobalt
59pellets.The radioisotope disintegratesto Nickel 60and emits abet particle and high energygamma rays.Havealong halflife,and takesalongtimetoactivate [3years]Because of its higher energy, the isotope is suitable only for thick sections.However,Itcanbeused forradiography of Steel,Copper andother mediumweight metals of thicknessranging from25mmto 200 mm.This isotope is preferredfor radiographyof steel above50 mmfor shorter exposure time.The contrast of theradiographic images poor when compared to iridiumand more difficult tointerpret.High-energy ofradiation requiresheavy shielding.Cobalt 60 equipments are veryheavy,costly and less mobile Cobalt 60
Half life : 5.27 Years.
Energy : 1.17 and 1.33 mev. Avgenergy : 1200kev. Equivalent to 2 mev X-rays. RHM : 1.32R / hr / Ci at 1 meter distance. Suitable forradiographyof35 to 200mm Steel or equivalent. Optimum resultin Steel 60 to 150mm Thulium 170 Thulium is an expensiverare earthelement.Thulium170is produced by neutron bombardmentof thulium169. The radioisotopedecays to ytterbium170by emitting two betaparticles[ 0.968, 0.884 mev ] and two gamma rays [0.084, 0.052 mev ]. ItIsalowenergy radioisotope,useful forradiography of lower atomic number or low thicknessmedium atomic numbermaterials. With small physical source size and a thin specimen the radiographic image is produced by thegamma and x rays[generated by theabsorbtion ofhighenergy beta particles ofpeak energy 0.9Mev,in the test specimen] and theradiograph will begood.Forlarger source size and thicker specimen the low energy gamma rays are absorbed and the radiograph is produced bythe x rays only with a resultant lossof image quality. Result insteel above10mmthicknessispoor. Containers ofthese sources are verysmall and lightweight. Thulium 170 Half life : 128.6 days. Energy: 52, 84kevgammaraysand.91 mev beta particle. Equivalent to 150 kev X-rays. RHM : 3mR / hr/ Ciat 1meter distance. Suitable for radiographyof2 to12mm SteeL Selenium75 Selenium -75 is nowgenerally acknowledgedthroughout the worldto provide performance benefits relativetoIridium-192 in the working range of 5-30 mmsteel. Selenium-75 hasa softergamma ray spectrum than Iridium-192 andithasasignificantlylonger half-life. The isotopes are produced in ceramic pellets and suitable lighter weight projectors are available Selenium75 Halflife:120days. Energy : 66 to 401 kev. RHM : 203 mR / hr / Ci at 1 meter. Suitable forradiographyof10 to 40mm Processing steps: Developing:Exposed films are locked in stainless steel hangers, and immersed in the developer for 5 minutes at 20C Immediately after immersion the hangers are tapped to dislodge air bubbles clinging to the surfaceofthefilms.The developer is then agitatedly shaking the hangers for 10seconds in everyminute to maintain uniformdeveloping action.Continuousagitation significantly reduces developing time.Developingtime depends on solution temperature andconcentration and must becorrectedas required.By temperature control andreplenishment of thedeveloper,constant developing time can be maintained. Stop bath Stop bath :developer solution is alkaline where as fixer is acidic. Hence developed films are washed in 2% acetic acid solution or water to remove traces of developer remaining on the films before they are immersed in the fixer solution. Fixing Fixing:The films are immersed in the fixer solution to make the developed image stable by removing unexposed silver halide grains by fixingaction.Recommended fixingtime is twicetheclearing time and films can be left in the fixerfor up to 15minutes Washing Washing :following fixing, the films are washed in running water for15minutes to remove all tracesoffixerfrom thesurface. Washing time canbereduced byusing suitable chemicals.Improperlywashed films become brown with age Removing watermarks Removing watermarks:Water droplets remaining on the surface of the films afterwashing canbe removed by dipping the films in a wetting agent solution before drying. Drying :Films are finally dried uniformly by evaporation or by circulating hot air in a temperature controlled drying cabinet. What are the ingredients of Developer? Developing Agent: - Metal, Hydroquinone and Pencil one. Accelerator: - Sodium carbonate. Restrainer: - Potassium Bromated. Preservative: - Sodium Sulphate. How the Radiographic films are classified Film types ?
The Radiographic films are classified as: -
Class I : - Highest contrast, Lowest speed. Class II : - High contrast, Low speed. Class III : - Medium contrast, Medium speed. Class IV : - Low contrast, High speed. What is the basis of classification of radiographic film?
Classification of Radiographic film is
done on the basis of grain size of Silver Bromide (Silver Bromide Crystals). Finer the grain size of Silver Bromide in emulsion, slower will be the speed. Generally used crystal size is 0.22, 0.52, 0.68, 0.80 and 1 micron. radiographic film D2 / R2 :Low speed, high contrast, extremely fine grain for excellent image sharpness,can be used with or without lead screen. Suitable for thin-wall steel, lower densitymaterials, plastics, composites etc. D4 / R4 :Mediumspeed, high contrast, extremely fine grain for good image quality, can be used with or withoutleadscreen.Suitablefor thin-wallsteel ,D5 / R5 :Standard speed, highcontrast, veryfine grain for good image quality, can be used with or withoutlead screen.Forthin / mediumthicksteel. D7 / R7 :Higher speed, high contrast, fine grain, can beused with or without lead screen. Suitable for thicker parts with gamma and thinner with x -rays. This isthe most used film for commonapplications. D8 / R8 :Veryhigh speed, high contrast,medium grain, can be used with or without lead screen. Suitable for thick steel, castparts withnon uniform thickness etc. D10 / R10 :Veryhigh speed,medium contrast, mediumgrain,can be used with or without lead screen. Suitable for thick steel, parts with non uniform thickness
Imagequalityindicators[IQI]
Commonly used IQI are: -
A. Wire type Pentameter. B. Plate type Pentameter. C. Step type Pentameter. D. Step- Hole type Pentameter CD-7-RT-R write V1.1.exe IQI Pentameter should be made of same material as that of the specimen. The selection of IQI should be made as: - For carbon Steel & Low Alloy Steel : -Carbon Steel IQI. For High Alloy Steel & Stainless Steel: -Stainless Steel IQI. For Aluminum & Aluminum Alloy: -Aluminum IQI. Copper & copper Alloy: - Copper IQI.
Name some IQI?
Wire types IQI : - 1-ISO-7, 6-ISO-12,10-ISO-16
Different types of Radiography techniques are: A. Single wall single image (Panoramic Exposure). B. Double wall single image. C. Double wall double image