Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 5
The Load in
Power System
1
Course Outcome
2
CONTENTS
Load Characteristic
Load Forecasting
Load Growth
Customer Billing
Power Factor
LOAD
CHARACTERI
STIC
Load Characteristic
Load Curve
The load on a power station is not constant. It varies
from time to time.
The load curve is obtained by plotting the loads against
the time on a graph paper.
When it plotted from 24 hours of a day it is called daily
load curve and if the time considered is for one year
(8760 hours) then it is called annual load curve.
The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the
load factor.
The areas under the load curve represent the energy
generated in the period considered.
5
Load Characteristic
Load Curve
The area under the curve divided by the total number of
hours gives the average load on the power station.
The peak curve load indicated by the load curve
represents the maximum demand on the power station.
Example of Typical
Commercial Load Curve
6
Load Characteristic
Load Curve
The greatest problem for a power supply company is
varying load. The generation should be matched with the
load consistently.
7
Load Characteristic
b) Demand Interval ( t)
The period over which the load is averaged.
Selected t period may be 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, or
even longer.
8
Load Characteristic
12
Load Characteristic
D TCD
D1 D2 ....... Dn i 1i i x DFi
i 1
Dg Dg Dg
Example 1
A generating station had a maximum load of 20,000 kW
and the units generated being 61,500,000 kWh for the
year. Calculate the load factor.
Solution
Unit Served (kWh )
FLD
Max load (kW) T (h)
61,500,000 kWh
100
20000 365 days 24 hours
35% 16
Load Characteristic
Example 2
A power station has two 60 MW units each running for
7500 hours in a year and one 30 MW unit running for
4500 hours in a year. The energy produced per year is
750 x106 kWh.
Determine:
(a) Plant load factor
(b) Plant capacity factor
(c) Plant use factor.
Assume maximum demand to be 80% of the plant
capacity.
17
Load Characteristic
Solution
a) Plant load factor
Capacity of the power plant 2x60 30 150MW
750 10 6 kWh
Average load
8760h
Unit Served 750 10 6 kWh
FLD 0.71
Maximum load T 8760h 150 10 W 0.8
6
18
Load Characteristic
Solution Example 2
c) Plant use factor
Energy that can be generated by two 60MW units and one
30MW unit
=2 units x 60MW x 7500h + 30MW x 4500h
=103.5x104MWh=1035x106kWh
750 10 6 kWh
Plant use factor 0.72
1035 10 kWh
6
19
Load Characteristic
Example 3
Assume the annual peak load of a primary feeder is
2000kW, at which the power loss i.e., total copper, or
I2R, loss is 80kW per three phase. Assuming an annual
loss factor of 0.15.
Determine:
(a) The average annual power loss
(b) The total annual energy loss due to the copper losses
of the feeder circuits.
20
Load Characteristic
Solution Example 3
a) Average annual power loss
Average power loss = Power loss at peak load x FLS
= 80 kW x 0.15
=12 kW
21
Example of Transformer
Sizing
An application has been made to the utility to connect a commercial
complex to the nearest distribution transformer. The distribution
transformer is rated 310 kVA and the current maximum demand on this
transformer is 250 kVA. The transformer is 20 years old and considering
hot summer, it is suggested not to load it beyond 90% capacity. The load
of the commercial complex are:
Introduction
Load forecasting plays an important role in power system
planning, operation and control
Forecasting means estimating active load at various load
buses ahead of actual load occurrence.
Planning and operational applications of load forecasting
requires a certain lead time also called forecasting
intervals.
A good forecast reflecting current and future trends,
tempered with good judgment, is the key to all planning,
indeed to financial success.
25
Load Forecasting
26
Load Forecasting
Nature of Forecast
Nature of Forecast Lead time Application
Very Short Term A few seconds to Generation, distribution
several minutes schedules, contingency analysis
for system security
Short Term Half an hour to a Allocation of spinning reserve;
few hours operational planning and unit
commitment; maintenance
scheduling
27
Load Forecasting
Forecasting Methodology
Forecasting techniques may be divided into three broad
classes. Techniques may be based on extrapolation or on
correlation or on a combination of both.
Extrapolation
Extrapolation techniques involve fitting trend curves to
basic historical data adjusted to reflect the growth trend
itself.
Correlation
Correlation techniques of forecasting relate system loads to
various demographic and economic factor.
28
LOAD
GROWTH
Load Growth
Introduction
In planning to accommodate future electric energy needs,
it is necessary that an estimate of the rate at which those
needs will grow.
Examples of a typical
energy requirement
projection for a certain
country
30
Load Growth
Growth Rates
Suppose a certain quantity M grows at a rate that is
proportional to the amount of M that is present.
It gives dM
aM
dt
Where a is the constant of proportionality, known as the
per-unit growth rate. The above equation may be written
as
M M 0e at
31
Load Growth
Growth Rates
At any two values of time, t1 and t2, the inverse ratio of
the corresponding quantities M1 and M2 is
M2
e a (t2 t1 )
M1
Growth Rates
Power system planners also need to know how much
power will be demanded.
Growth Rates
The area under this curve over a given period is a
measure of the energy Q consumed during that period.
34
Load Growth
Growth Rates
Evaluating the energy Q1 consumed up to t1 and the
energy Q2 consumed during the doubling time td = t2 - t1
t
1
P
Q1 P0 e bt dt 0 e bt
1
b
t2
P0 bt
Q2 P0 e dt ( e 1 )e bt
bt d 1
t1
b
Td = (ln 2/b), therefore Q2 becomes
P0 P0 bt1
Q2 ( 2 1 )e e Q1
bt1
b b
35
Load Growth
Example 1
Suppose that the consumption of the energy in a certain
country has a growth rate of 4 percent per year.
In how many years will the energy consumption be
tripled?
Solution Example 1
Q2
3 then 3 e 0.04 t or ln 3 0.04t
Q1
ln 3
t 27.47 years
0.04
36
Load Growth
Example 2
In certain country the energy consumption is expected to
be double in 10 years.
Calculate the growth rate in percent.
Solution Example 2
ln 2
a
td
0.693
a x100 6.93%
10
37
Load Growth
Example 3
Assume that one of the distribution transformer of the
Riverside substation supplies three primary feeders. The
30-min annual max demands per feeder as listed as
following table, together with the power factor (PF) at the
time of annual peak load. Assume a diversity factor of
1.15 among the three feeder for both real power (P) and
reactive power (Q). Feeder Demand (kW) PF
1 1800 0.95
2 2000 0.85
3 2200 0.90
38
Load Growth
Example 3
a) Calculate the 30-min annual max demand on the substation
transformer in kW and in kVar
b) Find the load diversity in KW
c) Select a suitable substation transformer size if zero load growth is
expected and if the company policy permits as much as 25 % short
time overload on the distribution substation transformer. Use the
suitable standard 3-phase as follow
2500/3125 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
3750/4687 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
5000/6250 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
7500/9375 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
39
Load Growth
Example 3
d) Now assume that the substation load will increase at a
constant percentage rate per year and will double in 10
years. If the 7500/9375 KVA rated transformer is
installed, in how many years will be loaded to its fans-on
rating. Assume the load growth equation is
Pn=P0(1+g)n
where: Pn=Load at the end of the nth year
P0=Initial Load
g=Annual growth rate
n=Numbers of years
40
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
a) Given the diversity factor FD = 1.15
Sum of individual max demand
FD
Coincident max demand
D1 D2 ....... Dn 1800kW 2000kW 2200kW
1.15
Dg Dg
41
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
a) Dg =5217.39kW ( in KW), in KVA, then find the power
factor angle PF Angle
0.95 18.2
0.85 31.79
0.90 25.84
Solution Example 3
a) Therefore Dg
2 2
Dg Dg ,kW Dg ,kVar 5217 2 2518.952 5793.64 kVA
n
LD
D
i 1
i Dg ,kW 6000 kW 5217 kW 783 kW
43
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
c) The transformer size capacity if permits of 25% short
time overload
The maximum demand is 5793.60 KVA
Tx Size 25% overload Remarks
2500/3125 KVA 3125x1.25=3906.25 Under size
3750/4687 KVA 4687x1.25=5858.75 Nearest
5000/6250 KVA 6250x1.25=7812.5 Over size
7500/9375 KVA 9375x1.25=11718.75 Over size
Solution Example 3
d) The term fans-on means the forced air cooled rating.
The increase annual growth rate (g) per year,
given Pn=P0(1+g)n
hence (1+g)10=2 , 1+ g =1.07177
g = 0.07177%/year
Therefore, (1.07177)n x 5793.60 KVA = 9375 KVA
Or ln 1.6182
n 6.944 or 7 Years
ln 1.07177
If the 7500/9375 KVA rated transformer is installed, it
will be loaded to its fan-on rating in about 7 years.
45
CUSTOMER
BILLING
Costumer Billing
Introduction
Customer billing is done by taking the difference in
readings of the meter at two successive times, usually at
an interval of 1 month.
The difference in readings indicates the amount of
electricity, in kilowatt hours, consumed by the customer
in that period.
The amount is multiplied by the appropriate rate or the
series of rates and the adjustment factor, and the bill is
sent to the customer.
47
Costumer Billing
1. Tariff
2. Bill & Payment
3. Current Bill
4. Other Charges
5. Bill Amount
6. Meter Reading
7. Billing Date
8. Payment Due Date
48
Costumer Billing
Tariff
Electricity Tariff can be define as a list of fixed rate
electricity prices which has been approved by a government.
In Malaysia the tariff for electricity are divided into 7
categories as follow:
1) Domestic
2) Commercial
3) Industrial
4) Mining
5) Street Lighting
6) Specific Agriculture
7) Top up & Stand By
49
Costumer Billing
Tariff
TARIFF CATEGORY UNIT RATES
1. Tariff A - Domestic Tariff
Forthefirst200kWh(1-200kWh)permonth sen/kWh 21.8
Example 1
A domestic costumer consume 460 kWh for 1 month.
Calculate the monthly bill.
Solution:
1)First200kWh(1-200kWh)permonth:(200x21.8)/100=RM43.6
2)Next100kWh(201-300kWh)permonth:(100x33.4)/100=RM33.4
3)Next100kWh(301-400kWh)permonth:(100x40.0)/100=RM40
4)Next100kWh(401-500kWh)permonth:(60x40.2)/100=RM24.12
MonthlyBill=RM(43.6+33.4+40+24.12)=RM 141.12
53
Costumer Billing
Example 1
Assume a domestic customer use the following domestic
tariff rate schedule.
54
Costumer Billing
Example 1(cont)
a) Assume that an average month is 730h and find the
monthly load factor
b) Find the reasonable size of continuous KVA rating of the
distribution transformer
c) Calculate the monthly bill
d) What size of capacitor (in kVar) would rise the PF of the
customer to 0.9
55
Costumer Billing
Solution Example 1
a) Customer A , FLD
56
Costumer Billing
Solution Example 1
c) The monthly bill
First 200kWh = 200kWh x 21.8 sen/kWh = RM43.6
Next800kWh = 800 kWh x 28.9 sen/kWh =RM 231.2
Over 1000kWh = 200 kWh x 31.2 sen/kWh = RM 62.4
The total monthly Bill= RM 337.20
d) Size of capacitor
Current PF=0.85, the kVarh value is
1200kWh
xSin( Cos 1 0.85 ) 743.69kVarh
0.85
57
Costumer Billing
Solution Example 1
1200kWh
sin(cos 1 0.9) 581.19kVAr h
0.9
Therefore, the capacitor size required is
(743.69 581.19)kVa rh
0.22kVAr
730h
58
Power Factor Surcharge
Percent of Condition
surcharge from
the current bill
For every 0.01 less than
1.5% 0.85 power factor
For every 0.01 less than
3% 0.75 power factor
59
60
POWER
FACTOR
Power Factor
62
Power Factor
P - kW
Q - kVar
S - kVA
S P2 Q2
kW
Power Factor
kVA
63
Power Factor
64
Power Factor
65
Power Factor
66
Power Factor
P
PF 0.9
S
P 800
S (load) 888.88 kVA
PF 0.9
S (load) 888.88
%TX load 100 100 88.88%
TX Capacity 1000
67
Power Factor
69
Power Factor
70
Power Factor
75
Power Factor
Example 1
An industrial plant has an active power demand of
500kW at a power factor of 0.76 lagging. Determine the
reactive power rating of the capacitor bank required to
improve the power factor to the following:
a) 0.8 lagging
b) 0.9 lagging
c) Unity
Assume the capacitor steps are available in 50 kVar
increments
78
Power Factor
Solution Example 1
1 1
QCAP PLOAD x
PF 2
1
PF 2
1
1
2
1 1
a ) QCAP 500kW x 2
1
2
1 52.6kVar 50kVar
0.76
0.80
1 1
b ) QCAP 500kW x 2
1
2
1 185.4kVar 200kVar
0.76
0.90
1 1
c ) QCAP 500kW x 2
1
2 1 427.6kVar 400kVar
0.76
1
79
Power Factor
Example 2
Assume that a 700 kVA load has a 65% power factor. It is
desired to improve the power factor to 92%.Using the
power factor correction table (Table 1).
Determine the following:
a) The correction factor required
b) The capacitor size required
c) What would be the resulting power factor if the next
higher standard capacitor size is used. Assume the
capacitor steps are available in 50 kVar increments
80
Power Factor
Solution Example 2
a) From correction factor table (Table 1), the correction
factor required can be found as 0.743
b) The 700 KVA load at 65% power factor is
PL=SL x cos W
=700k x 0.65 W
=455 kW
The capacitor size necessary to improve the power factor
from 65 to 92% can be found as
Capacitor size = PL x (Correction Factor)
=(455)(0.743)
=338.065 kVar
81
Power Factor
Solution Example 2
c) Assume that the next higher standard capacitor size (or
rating) is selected to be 350 kVar. Therefore the resulting
new correction factor can be found from
Standard Capacitor Rating
New Correction Factor
PL
350kVar
0.769
455kW
From the table by using interpolation method, based on
original power factor (65%) and new correction factor
(0.769), refer to Table 1.
82
Power Factor
Solution Example 2
the close value of desired correction factor 0.769 is 0.774 at
93% power factor and;
The difference between the correction factors at 92% (0.743)
and 93% (0.774) is 0.031.
Thus, the new corrected % PF is obtained by an interpolation
method:
0.774 - 0.769 0.769 - 0.743
92% 93%
0.031 0.031
92.8387%
0.928
83
Table 1: Power Factor Correction Table
84