Todays Plan: 5/2/16

Finish Lab work from last unit and

turn it in-Due today!
If you finish, work on the transpiration
lab, then turn your attention to the
ecology activities
Ecology notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/3/16
Bellwork: Explain and set up lab (15
mins)
Owl Pellet Lab (45 mins)
Ecology notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/4/16
Keep working on ecology assignments
Notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/5/16
Bellwork: Talk about deadlines and
due dates (15 mins)
Symbiosis Activity
Continue notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/6/16
Bellwork: Last-minute reminders
before exam (15 mins)
Wrap-up this weeks work and get
transpiration lab posted
Finish what we can of ecology notes
(the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/5/15
Q&A (15 mins)
Ecology Test (the rest of class)
If you finish early, work on missing
stuff or finish the symbiosis mix and
match
Todays Plan: 5/8/14
Bellwork: Finish Power of Pyramids
(30 mins)
Talk about data (10 mins)
Tolerance thinking lab (25 mins)
Continue with notes (the rest of
class)
Todays Plan: 5/9/14
Bellwork: Finish Tolerance thinking
lab (10 mins)
Owl Pellet Lab (50 mins)
Notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/12/14
Bellwork: Ecology Q&A (15 mins)
Symbiosis mix-and-match activity (45
mins)
Continue notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 5/13/2014
Test Q&A (15 mins)
Ecology Test (the rest of class)
If you finish early, finish the
symbiosis mix-n-match and missing
work
Todays Plan: 5/12/2010
Bellwork: Q&A (10 mins)
Ecology test (the rest of class)
If you finish early, work on your
project!
5/13-5/19/2010
Work with your group on your final
project
Ill put out a workshop sign up for
your NTKs each day. The last 30
mins, Ill do the workshops you ask
for.
5/20-21
Prepare for your presentations (5
mins)
Group project presentations (the rest
of class)
Ecology
This is the study of the distribution,
abundance, and interactions of
organisms within their environments.
Levels of ecology:
Organism
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biosphere
Figure 50-1

Organismal ecology Population ecology

How and why does
How do individuals population size
interact with each change over time?
other and their Each female salmon
physical environment? produces thousands
of eggs. Only a few
Salmon migrate will survive to
from saltwater adulthood. On
to freshwater average, only two
environments will return to the
to breed stream of their birth
to breed
Community ecology Ecosystem ecology
How do energy
How do species and nutrients
interact, and what are cycle through
the consequences? the environment?
Salmon die and then
decompose, releasing
nutrients that are used
Salmon are prey as by bacteria, archaea,
well as predators plants, protists, young
salmon, and other
organisms
Population Ecology
Demography-the study of poulations over time, including
categories into which the organism falls
For individuals in populations:
Life expectancy/Life tables
Immigration/emigration
For whole populations:
Density=# individuals/area
Dispersion=where you find the individuals in that area
Age Structure=Bar graph showing ages and genders of
individuals in the population
Reproductive rate, r (growth rate)=births-deaths/N
N=population size
Survivorship curve (3 types)
Biotic potential=maximum growth possible for the
population under ideal conditions (includes things like
reproductive age, clutch size, frequency of reproduction,
survival rate of offspring)
Figure 50-30a

Distribution of cattle is limited by distribution of tsetse flies.

Distribution of tsetse fly

(red)
The two distributions
have little overlap
(purple)
Distribution of cattle
(blue)
Figure 52-1-Table 52-1
Figure 52-15

Developed country Developing country

(Sweden) (Honduras)

2050 2050 projections

projections

2000 data 2000 data

Figure 52-2a

Three general types of survivorship curves

Ty
High survivorship pe
I
Low sur

St Ty

Low surv
ea
dy pe I
vivorshi

su I
rvi
vo
rsh
ip

ivorship
p

Ty
pe
III
High survivorsh
ip
Limiting factors
Limiting factors are elements of an ecosystem that
are in short supply and therefore set limits on
population size
Carrying Capacity (K)-maximum number of
individuals that can occupy an ecosystem
Density-dependent limiting factors-factors whose
limiting effects increase as population density
increases (ex: disease, famine, etc). Some cause an
increase in competition.
Density-independent limiting factors-factors whose
limiting effects are not tied to population density (ex:
natural disasters, climate, etc)
Growth models
Exponential model-also known as a J curve. Assumes
that populations can grow without limit
Logistic model-also known as an S curve. Assumes
that populations know what K is, and will act
accordingly
This changes the reproductive rate equation:
Change N/Change t=rN(K-N/K)
Notice, K is taken into consideration here
Reality-models are only as good as their assumptions,
which means that the graph of real population growth
is slightly different.
Figure 52-7a

Density dependence: Growth rate slows at high density.

Carrying capacity

Later growth
falls to zero
Early growth
is rapid
Growth begins
to slow
Growth and Life History
These growth models are associated with 2
kinds of life-strategies for organisms:
r-selected species=these exhibit rapid,
exponential growth. These are often called
opportunitstic species because they quickly
invade an area, reproduce and die. Offspring
mature quickly and are small. (ex: grasses,
insects)
K-selected species=these are species whose
populations are relatively stable, usually around
K. They produce a small number os offspring
that are large and require lots of care. They
reproduce repeatedly (ex: humans)
Human Population growth
Human population worldwide is reaching 9 billion. It
was just 3 billion 100 years ago.
Why the rapid rise?
Increases in food supply and travel-humans have
domesticated, bred, and fine-tuned agriculture (from
hunter-gatherer to farmer)
Reduction in disease-advances in medicine, like
vaccines, antibiotics, etc have dropped the death rate
and increased the successful birth rate
Reduction in wastes-sewage systems and water
treatment have reduced health hazards
Expansion of habitat-better housing, clothing, etc
have made it easier to live in more places
Figure 52-16-Table 52-2
Figure 52-17

n t
rre
Cu igh
H

ed iu m
M
Low
Population cycles: Predator/Prey
Predator/prey describes a relationship
between a hunter and an individual that is
eaten.
In general, changes in the prey population
cause similar changes in the predator
population since the predator is dependent
on the prey. Just keep in mind, the prey
are usually predators of the producers, so
their population changes are often due to
seasonal changes in their prey population.
Figure 52-12

The hare-lynx populations cycle every

11 years, on average; the size of the lynx
population lags behind that of the hares

Hare Lynx
Community Ecology
Habitat-the area that an organism inhabits within an
ecosystem
Niche-the role of the organism within the environment1
species per niche
Gauses principle of competitive exclusion=when 2 species
try to occupy the same niche, there will be competition
until one species leaves or dies
Resource partitioning=some species can coexist even
though they appear to be competing for the same
resources. They are occupying slightly different niches by
using the resources in different ways.
Character displacement (niche shift)=as a result of
resource partitioning, certain characteristics allow
organisms to obtain their partitioned resources more
successfully
Realized niche=This is the niche that the organism occupies
b/c of resource partitioning. If there were no competitors,
they would otherwise occupy their fundamental niche, but
because of niche overlap, they must adjust
Figure 53-2

Consumptive competition Preemptive competition Overgrowth competition

These trees are competing for water Space preempted by these barnacles is The large fern has overgrown other individuals
and nutrients. unavailable to competitors. and is shading them.

Chemical competition Territorial competition Encounter competition

Few plants are growing under these Grizzly bears drive off black bears. Spotted hyenas and vultures fight over a kill.
Salvia shrubs.
Figure 53-4a

Competitive exclusion in two species of Paramecium

Paramecium
aurelia

Paramecium
caudatum
Figure 53-4b

Competitive exclusion occurs when competition is

asymmetric
Asymmetric Symmetric
competition competition

Higher fitness
Same
Lower fitness fitness
Figure 53-4c

and niches overlap completely.

Species 1: Strong competitor

Species 2: Weak competitor,

driven to extinction
Figure 53-4d

When competition is asymmetric and niches do not overlap

completely, weaker competitors use nonoverlapping resources.
Species 1 Species 2
(strong competitor) (weak competitor)

Fundamental
niche
Realized
niche
Figure 53-3
One species eats seeds of a certain size range.

Partial niche overlap: competition for seeds of

intermediate size
Species 2
Species 1
Trophic Relationships
These are the feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
Recall from biology that energy transfer between
trophic levels is inefficient-only 10% of the energy is
transferred, which affects the amount of biomass and
the numbers of individuals at each trophic level. This
also means that food chains are rarely more than 5
trophic levels.
Food chain: primary producerprimary
consumersecondary consumertertiary
consumerdetritovores (decomposers)
Food webs are overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem.
Recall the following terms: carnivore, herbivore,
omnivore
Figure 54-1

External energy
source, usually
solar energy but
also chemical energy

Primary producers (autotrophs)

Organisms that can synthesize
their own food

Abiotic environment
The soil, climate, atmosphere,
and the particulate matter
and solutes in water

Consumers Decomposer
Organisms that eat Organisms that feed
other living organisms on dead organisms or
their waste products
Figure 54-5
Trophic Feeding Decomposer Grazing
level strategy food chain food chain

Quaternary
5
consumer
Coopers hawk

4 Tertiary
consumer
Robin Coopers hawk

Secondary
3
consumer
Earthworm Robin

Primary
2 decomposer
or consumer
Bacteria, archaea Cricket

1 Primary
producer
Dead maple leaves Maple tree leaves
Figure 54-6

Coopers hawk Fox

Robin Alligator lizard

Arrows show direction
of energy flow: from
organism consumed
to consumer
Earthworm Millipede

Bracket fungus Bacteria, archaea Puffball Pillbugs Insect larvae Cricket

(many species) (maggots)

Dead leaves Dead animals Maple tree

Rotting log (many species) (many species) leaves
Figure 54-7

Production of biomass
(g/m2/year)

Tertiary consumers 3
10
%
Efficiency of
Secondary consumers 30 15% energy transfer

Primary consumers 20
and decomposers 200 %

Primary
producers 1000
Types of predator/prey
relationships
True predators-kills and eats another
animal
Parasites-are only predatory if they kill
their host
Parasitoid-insects that lay eggs on a host.
The larvae are parasitic to the host
Herbivores-yes, theyre technically
predators. Some are seed-eaters
(granivores), some eat grasses (grazers),
and some eat other plant material
(browsers)
Avoiding Predation
Organisms have evolved many mechanisms for
avoiding predators.
Secondary Compounds-toxic chemicals produced by
plants that can make herbivores sick
Camouflage (cryptic coloration)-helps the animal
blend into its surroundings (some predators use this
as well to help them hunt)
Aposematic coloration (warning coloration)-a bright
color pattern that advertises that the organism should
be avoided (ex: wasp/bee stripes)
Mimicry-organisms resembling each other (shortens
the predators learning curve)
Mullerian mimicry-dangerous organisms resemble
each other
Batesian mimicry-organisms without a defense
mechanism resemble a dangerous organism
Figure 53-12

Cottonwood tree felled by beavers Resprouted trees have more Survival of beetle larvae
defensive compounds. placed on ant mound
Figure 53-10
Prey and predator

Blue mussels Crabs

Correlation between predation rate and prey defense

Figure 53-9

Constitutive defenses of animals vary.

Camouflage: blending into the background Schooling: safety in numbers Weaponry: fighting back

Mimicry can protect both dangerous and harmless species.

Mllerian mimics Batesian mimics

Paper wasp Bumblebee Honeybee Hornet moth Wasp beetle Hoverfly

Symbiosis-a different kind of
relationship
In a symbiotic relationship, organisms
closely associate with one another.
There are 3 types of symbiosis:
Parasitism-1 organism benefits, the
other is harmed
Commensalism-1 organism benefits, the
other is neither harmed nor benefitted
Mutualism-both organisms benefit
Figure 53-16-Table-53-1
Coevolution in Relationships
Organisms often respond to changes
in other organisms through
coevolution.
For example, hummingbirds find
nectar by color, so the flowers that
attract them are tube-shaped, are
bright red, and have virtually no scent
Often, plants can only be pollinated
by one type of pollinator, so they
evolve together
Biodiversity
This is also called species diversity and can
be discussed in terms of
Species richness-number of different species in
the community
Relative abundance of different species in the
community
This is a measure of heath of an ecosystem
Diseases are specific to the organism
If 1 food source dies, there are others, etc
Figure 53-25

Community 1 Community 2 Community 3

B
C
Species
D
E

Species richness: 6 6 5
Species diversity: 0.59 0.78 0.69
Figure 55-4
Hotspots in terms of species richness of birds

Hotspots in terms of endemic species of birds

Hotspots in terms of high proportion of endemic plants and high threat

High Impact Species in
Communities
Keystone Species-These are not necessarily abundant in a
community, but play a part in many interactions within the
community. You can tell a keystone species by removing it
from the ecosystem and viewing the impact. (ex: sea otters,
if removed dont keep sea urchins in check, and theres less
kelp)
Invasive Species-These are species that invade (usually by
being introduced by humans) an ecosystem and replace the
species that are naturally there
Dominant Species-These are the most abundant species in
an ecosystem, and have the most biomass
Foundation Species-These are also called Ecosystem
engineers, and they cause physical changes in their
environments. Beavers are examples of this type of species.
Facilitators are foundation species that have a positive impact
on the environment
Figure 53-18
Predator: Pisaster ochraceous

Prey: Mytilus californianus

Figure 55-7

Invasive species increase competition. Invasive species introduce disease. Invasive species increase predation.

Purple loosestrife is crowding out native An introduced fungus has virtually wiped out The brown tree snake has extinguished dozens
organisms in North American marshes. the American chestnut. of bird species on Guam.
Figure 53-19

P. ochraceous
(keystone predator)
present

P. ochraceous
(keystone predator)
absent
Community Change
Succession-a series of more-or-less orderly changes
in an ecosystem over time. Begins with a pioneer
species (usually an r-selected species) and ends with
a climax community (stable)
In general, as organisms inhabit the area, they
changes the texture, pH, and water potential of the
soil, as well as establish competition for resources as
the area becomes crowded
Primary Succession-occurs on a substrate that has
never before supported life.
Secondary Succession-occurs on a substrate that has
gone through some sort of disturbance
Succession on land
In primary succession, generally starts with
lava flow or sand.
Pioneer for lava-lichens
Pioneer for sand-grasses
In secondary succession, you can start at
any point in the successional process,
usually a field.
These used to be thought of as a
predictable series of changes, however,
there are instances that are more random
and less orderly b/c theyre affected by
climate, which species happen to arrive
first, etc.
Figure 53-21-1

Old field

Disturbance (plowing) ends, site is

invaded by short-lived weedy species.

Pioneering species
Figure 53-21-2

Weedy species are replaced by longer-lived

herbaceous species and grasses.

Early successional
community

Shrubs and short-lived

trees begin to invade.

Mid-successional
community
Figure 53-21-3

Short-lived tree species mature;

long-lived trees begin to invade.

Late-successional
community

Long-lived tree
species mature.

Climax community
Succession in Water
This happens when you start with a
lake or pond that changes to a
marsh-like state.
The marsh is followed by meadow,
with lots of grasses.
Finally, theres a climax community of
native vegetation
Ecosystem Ecology
Biogeochemical Cycles-this is the flow of important elements through the
ecosystem.
Hydrologic cycle-mainly an abiotically-driven cycle.
Reservoirs-ocean, air, groundwater, glaciers
Assimilation-plants absorb water from the soil, animals drink water
and eat organisms
Release-transpiration, evaporation, etc.
Carbon cycle-mainly biotically-driven and tied to atmospheric CO2 levels
that cause the greenhouse effect
Reservoirs-atmosphere, fossil fuel, peat, organic material (like
cellulose)
Assimilation-photosynthesis, animals eating plants and each other
Release-respiration and decomposition
Nitrogen cycle-also a biotically driven cycle dependent heavily on
bacteria
Reservoirs-atmospheric N2, soil (nitrates, nitrites, ammonium,
amonia)
Assimilation-nitrogen fixation by bacteria, nitrification by bacteria
Release-denitrification by bacteria, decomposition, animal waste
Phosphorous cycle-again, a biotically-driven cycle
Reservoirs-rocks and ocean sediments
Assimilation-plants absorb phosphates and are eaten by animals
Release-decomposition, animal waste
Figure 54-13

THE GLOBAL WATER CYCLE

All values in 1018 grams per year Net movement of water vapor by wind: 36

Evaporation Precipitation Evaporation, Precipitation

from ocean: over ocean: transpiration: over land: 95
319 283 59

Percolation

o undwater: 36
Runoff and gr Water table
(saturated soil)
Figure 54-14

THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE

All values in gigatons of carbon per year Atmosphere: 778 (during 1990s)

Net uptake via Net uptake via Land-use change

photosynthesis, photosynthesis (primarily deforestation): Fossil-fuel use:
chemical processes: by plants: 3.0 1.6 6.3
1.5

Organisms, soil,
litter, peat: 2190

Rivers (erosion):
Organisms, chemical 0.8
processes in ocean:
40,000

Aquatic ecosystems Terrestrial ecosystems Human-induced changes

Figure 54-16

THE GLOBAL NITROGEN CYCLE

All values in gigatons of nitrogen per year

Atmospheric nitrogen (N2)

Industrial
Protein and fixation: 100
Bacteria in mud nucleic acid
synthesis
use N-containing
molecules as energy Lightning
sources, excrete N2: and rain: 3
310 Internal Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing cycling: in roots and soil: 202
Internal cyanobacteria: 1200
Runoff: 36
cycling: 15
8000

Mud Decomposition of
Permanent burial: 10 detritus into ammonia
Biomes
These are ecosystems that have
characteristic biotic and abiotic factors
Land Biomes are largely determined by
latitude (except desert which is determined
by climate)
As you move from the poles toward the equator,
biodiversity and biomass increase. The length of
the growing season also increases.
Water Biomes are determined by salinity
and depth
Land Biomes
In the tropics: Northern Coniferous
Rain forest-200-400 forest (Taiga)-30-100
cm of rain annually cm of rain annually
Savanna-30-50 cm of Tundra-20-60 cm of
rain annually rain annually
In the temperate zone: Desert-occurs at any
Deciduous forest-70- latitude-less than 30
200 cm of rain cm of rain annually
annually
Grassland-30-100 cm
of rain annually
Chaparal-30-50 cm of
rain annually (coastal
region)
Figure 50-9

Barrow

Dawson
Chicago
Konza Prairie

Yuma

Belm
Figure 50-23

North pole Small amount of

sunlight per unit area

Low angle of
incoming sunlight

Moderate angle of
incoming sunlight

Sunlight directly
overhead

Large amount of
sunlight per unit area
Figure 54-11

Boreal forest: Accumulation of Tropical wet forest: Almost no

detritus and organic matter organic accumulation

Organic
matter

Organic
matter
Figure 50-12

Tropical wet forests are

extremely rich in species
Figure 50-11
Figure 50-18

Temperate forests are

dominated by broad-
leaved deciduous trees
Figure 50-17
Figure 50-16

Grasses are the

dominant lifeform
in prairies and
steppes
Figure 50-15
Figure 50-20

Boreal forests are

dominated by
needled-leaved
evergreens, such
as spruce and fir
Figure 50-19
Figure 50-22

Arctic tundra is dominated

by cold-tolerant shrubs,
lichens, and herbaceous
plants
Figure 50-21
Figure 50-26

Air rises over mountains

and cools; rain falls
East
West Dry air creates
Moisture-laden air blows desert conditions
onshore from Pacific Ocean

Cascade
Mountains This area is in
a rain shadow
Figure 50-14

Saguaro cacti are a prominent

feature of the Sonoran Desert in
the southwestern part of
North America
Figure 50-13
Water Biomes
Freshwater: Marine:
Lakes Intertidal Zone
Streams and Rivers Oceanic Pelagic-
Wetlands split into the photic
and aphotic zones
Brackish:
Coral reefs-always
Estuaries
in the photic zone
Benthic-ocean
bottom
Figure 50-5

Bogs are stagnant and acidic. Marshes have nonwoody plants. Swamps have trees and shrubs.
Figure 50-3

Littoral
Limnetic
zo n e
zone

Photic
zone
Be
Aphotic
nt
h
zone
ic
zo
ne
Primary Productivity
This is the amount of light energy
converted to chemical energy in an
ecosystem.
Gross Primary productivity-is the total
primary productivity of the ecosystem
Net Primary productivity-is the gross
primary productivity- the energy used by
producers for respiration (R)
Formula for net primary productivity:
NPP=GPP-R
Figure 54-3

NPP per unit area Area covered, by Total NPP

ecosystem type

Aquatic
Terrestrial
Human Impact on the Biosphere
Human activity over time has been damaging to the
biosphere.
Ecology is really a study of balance, and as the
human population has grown, our wastes and
byproducts have thrown off that balance.
There have been, in recent years, efforts to
reestablish the balance and conserve our resources.
Ex: Prior to the 1980s, CFCs were common
propellants used in household goods. As a result of
human use of CFCs, they built up in the atmosphere,
reacting with ozone (O3), and causing holes in the
ozone layer. This layer surrounds the planet and
shields us from damaging UV radiation. As a result
of banning CFCs, and using safer alternatives, the
holes in the ozone layer are repairing themselves.
Climate change
Human activities have caused a buildup of
CO2 in the atmosphere. Of course, CO2 is
a greenhouse gas, which means that we
have additional heat building up in our
atmosphere
Data indicates that the world is getting
warmer, which sparks many problems like
raising sea levels, changing weather
patterns that could decrease agricultural
output, change the trophic structure of our
oceans and land
Figure 54-15b

Recent changes in atmospheric CO2 recorded in Hawaii

At Mauna Loa, atmospheric

CO2 concentrations are high
in winter and low in summer,
forming annual cycles
Figure 54-19

Cold-water copepods are declining in the North Atlantic. Flowering times for some species in midwestern
North America are earlier in the year.

Great
Britain
Cold-water Warm-water
copepods copepods
Baptista flowers
Figure 54-21

Much of the ocean is stratified by density and temperature. Global warming increases the density gradient, making it
less likely for layers to mix.

Surface layer: Water is warm, less dense Surface layer: Water is much warmer, less dense

Currents are less likely

Much
Nutrient-rich to bring nutrient-rich
steeper
Density water is brought water to surface,
density
gradient to the surface against the steeper
gradient
by currents density gradient

Benthic zone: Water is 4C, highest density Benthic zone: Water is 4C, highest density
Pollution
Obviously, this causes destruction of water, air, and
land resources, as they become fouled by waste.
This has obvious negative side-effects for orgnisms on
the planet, but there are 2 important issues
associated with pollution that arent always discussed.
Biological magnification-while energy decreases as it
moves up the food chain, pollutants and toxins, like
DDT, concentrate.
Eutrophication-believe it or not, this IS a bad thing.
Over-fertilization nourishes the water, causing algal
blooms. Not only can these be toxic to animals, but
they are r-strategists, so they die, sink, and are
decomposed at the bottom of bodies of water (mainly
freshwater). Decomposition is an oxygen-consuming
process, which leaves the bottom waters anoxic,
causing fish-kills
Other Environmental Problems
Acid Rain-Sulphur-containing compounds
belched from smokestacks turn into
sulphuric acid in the atmosphere
Deforestation-clear-cutting of forests for
logging and expanding human population.
This is particularly bad b/c the nutrients in
tropical rain forests are in the canope.
Desertification-overgrazing of grasslands
bordering deserts turns these into deserts.
All of these can lead to endangerment of or
reduction in species and biodiversity.
Figure 55-10

The devastation of deforestation Satellite view of deforestation in Rondnia, Brazil

1975 2001
Figure 55-6

Terrestrial
Freshwater
Marine
Sustainable Practices
These are things that humans can do
to reduce our impact on the
biosphere.
Examples include: reforestation,
smoke-stack filters, reduction of fossil
fuel consumption, smart use of
fertilizers, plowing and strip cropping
to reduce erosion, use of biological
methods for controling pests,
establishing protected areas, etc