Unit 9: Soil Fertility

Management
Chapter 10
Objectives
Understand objectives of soil fertility
management
Philosophies/techniques of precision
farming
Using & obtaining valid soil samples
Considerations in making/following fertilizer
recommendations
Knowledge of fertilizer quality
How to calculate fertilizer blends
Fertilizer application methods
Benefits/limitations of manure use
Introduction
Fertilizer is one management
option used almost universally
Must replace soil nutrients lost by
harvest
Over-fertilization can result in
dangerous pollution
Technology has increased
fertilizer efficiency
Goals & Concerns in
Fertility Management
Goals regarding fertility
Increase yield
Reduce costs/unit production
Improve product quality
Avoid environmental pollution
Improve environmental health &
aesthetics
Goals & Concerns in
Fertility Management
Efficient land managers: spend
<20% of production costs on
fertilizers, expect >50% increase in
yields
Fertilizers may not be profitable if:
Water is the most limiting factor
Other growth hindrances insects,
diseases, acidity, extreme cold
Increased yield has less market value
than the cost of buying/app of fertilizer
Goals & Concerns in
Fertility Management
Fertilizers generally most profitable
farm input
Soil fertility problems usually the
easiest to solve
Soil nutrients typically present in
finite amounts, dont replenish
themselves
Crops typically contain: (in rank of
amount found in the plant) N, K, Ca,
P, Mg, S
Goals & Concerns in
Fertility Management
Utilizing fertilizers may help cut unit
cost of production by maximizing
yield
Improved fertility = improved yields,
improved aesthetic appeal
Environmental concerns abound
Fertilizer laws viewed as lax by some
Farmers may be the primary cause of
non-point-source pollution
Goals & Concerns in
Fertility Management
Three common pollutants:
Nitrates
Percolate through to groundwater
Not safe to drink
Cause Blue-baby syndrome inhibits
oxygenation of blood
Becoming common near heavily fertilized
fields, feedlots, dairies
Phosphates
Pollute surface waters by runof
Promotes algae growth in rivers/ponds
Depletes available oxygen in the water for fish
Goals & Concerns in
Fertility Management
Wise use of fertilizers must be
encouraged, actually improve the
environment
Crops, trees, etc. - remove more CO2,
decrease sediment, dust, erosion
Plays important role for future of the
planet
Scale of Land
Management
Large- & Medium-Scale
Management
Large-Scale
Low levels of operational precision, little
reliance on sophisticated technology
May be most feasible/profitable for some

Simple & low-tech

Some shy away from high tech for other

reasons
Scale of Land
Management
Disadvantages
Some parts of field may receive too much/little
fertilizer or pesticide
Less than optimal yields
Inefficient use of fertilizers & pesticides
Higher cost of production/unit
Environmental pollution due to over application
Advantages
Minimal technological training &
instrumentation needed
Field operations can be performed w/ standard,
readily available, cheaper equipment
Scale of Land
Management
Medium-Scale
Subdivide field into two+ management units
Delineation may be based on:
Soil types

Past management diferences

Farmers observations

Ex. High, medium, low N application areas

in the field
Same equipment/technology needs as for
large-scale management farmers
Scale of Land
Management
Does improve efficiency of farm inputs
Can reduce excessive applications of
chemicals/fertilizers
May do spot treatments/applications w/in a
field due to field observations
Small-Scale Management
(Precision Farming)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
network of U.S. satellites w/ a signal
detection system used to locate
positions on the ground
Scale of Land
Management
Soil sample fields on a grid
Data collection points no more than a
few feet apart
Each sample site mapped using GPS
Custom applicators can custom apply
fertilizers at variable rates that
change constantly as the applicator
travels the field variable rate
application, site-specific
management, precision farming
Scale of Land
Management
Potential to substantially decrease
fertilizer/chemical application rates
Potential to substantially decrease
input costs
Does require expensive technology,
equipment & extensive technical
knowledge
Soil Sampling

Standard method for determining

soil fertility
Use w/ precision farming to
minimize inputs
Accuracy of sample is key!!!!
Soil Sampling
Depth & Number of Samples
Sampling depth 7-12 for typical soil
analysis
Shallower depth for no-till/sod crops acid-
layer can form at very top of soil structure
For accurate N analysis 24-36 depth

For composite sampling fewer #

samples decreases accuracy of analysis
Soil Sampling
Sampling Frequency, Time, &
Location
New land, land new to you yearly for
1st few yrs until you understand the soil
Every 2-3 yrs, unless concern for
environmental problems
Analysis determines which nutrients
can be made available in the soil &
which will need to be supplied
Samples often pulled in fall to provide
enough time for analysis/amendments
Soil Sampling
Spring sampling is more accurate, but
conditions may not be favorable, or not
sufficient time
Sampling row crops problematic
Can hit a fertilizer zone
Hard to get enough representative
samples
Soil Sampling
Uniformity of Sampling Areas
Examine field for diferences in soil
characteristics, past treatments
Consider:
Uniformity of productivity
Topography
Soil texture
Soil structure
Drainage
Depth/color topsoil
Past management
Soil Sampling
Sampling area
Each composite sample should represent
<12.5 ac
Grid sampling can be as small as you need
5-10 ac grids are common
Providing Detailed Soil & Cropping
Background
Helps to provide w/ soil analysis to
increase accuracy of fertilizer
recommendations
Soil Sampling

Include:
Previous crop
Crop (s)) to be grown

Realistic yield goal

Last liming & fertilization rates

Manure applications

Soil series (if known)

Drainage info

If irrigation used
Soil Sampling
Other problems:
Temp, geographic location, elevation,
farming practices, etc.
Soil Tests

Law of the Minimum: growth of the

plant is limited most by the essential
plant nutrient present in the least
relative amount (first-limiting)
Soil Acidity Evaluation
pH measured w/ electrode & solution
Lime requirement amount of lime
required to achieve desired pH
Reported as buffer pH
Soil Tests
Soil Test for N
No good tests for soil available N
Most states provide N recommendations
based on yrs of field plots trials on various
crops, soils, management, fertilizers
N recommendations consider:
Previous crops
Estimates N carryover
N needed to decompose residues
Projected yields
Climate
Soil Tests
Lab N tests accurate, but nearly
impossible to interpret
Some will discourage N testing
Behavior of carryover N unpredictable
can make analyses invalid
Leaching
Denitrification

Mineralization

Climate
Soil Tests
N recommendations based on yield
goals rather than soil reserves
Corn Rule 1.2-1.4#N/bu of yield goal
How much N should be recommended for
corn following corn, expected yield 120
bu/ac?
How much N should be recommended for
corn following soybeans, expected yield
195 bu/ac?
Soil Tests
Soil Tests for P & K
Widely used to predict probability of
crop response to fertilization
Survey:
47% soil tested medium to low for P
43% soil tested medium to low for K
P & K soil levels declining in many states

P testing
Quite reliable soil P is very stable from
yr to yr
Soil Tests
Most soil P unavailable to crops
Soil test extracts & measures what may
actually be available
K testing
Tests both exchangeable & soluble reserves
Conflicting testing procedures over which is
most accurate
Some estimate upper threshold needs ~159-
246#/ac (above which no response to K fertilizer)
Others - 335#/ac on clay soils (calculated based
on soil CEC higher CEC = decreased available K)
Some experimentation w/ soil probes
checking K, NO3, PO4, SO4
Soil Tests
Soil Test for Ca & Mg
Related to need for lime
Well-limed soils rarely Ca & Mg
deficient
Mg deficiency more common than Ca
Coarse-textured or acidic soils
Many yrs using non-Mg containing lime

Mg testing for:
Exchangeable soil Mg
% Mg saturation of soil colloids
Ratio of K:Mg
Soil Tests
Soil Test for S & B
S testing inaccurate acts much like
N
Can test but must take variability into
account
Boron level recommendations
<1.0 ppm deficient for plant growth
1-5.0 ppm adequate

>5.0 ppm excess/toxicity risks

Soil Tests
Soil Test for Micronutrient Needs
Difficult to develop accurate tests
due to relatively infrequent need for
field supplementation
Can be done, if requested for a
specific need
Adds expense to soil analysis
Soil Tests
How Good Is Soil Testing?
Analyses recalibrated regularly based
on field trial studies
Validity of analysis related directly to
accuracy of sample, information
provided to the lab
Soil analyses generally very valid for:
P, K, soluble salts, pH, lime
Other tests should only be used on as-
needed basis
Extra cost
Less accurate
Analysis of Plants

Only way to be sure of soil nutrient

availability
Plant Analysis vs. Soil Testing
Plant most accurate report on what
nutrients are actually available
Plant analysis leaves little to no room
for amendments to the soil
When deficiencies are acknowledged,
yield usually already afected
Analysis of Plants
When is plant analysis most helpful?
Treatment of an easily-corrected deficiency
Long-growing crops: turf, tree fruits,

forests, sugar cane

Quick Tests in the Field
Can test for N, K status in plants
Collect ~20 leaves for sample
Must be random from diferent locations
Dont select only afected-looking leaves
Analysis of Plants
Chop/mix, squeeze sap & test
Most efective for greenhouse/nursery growers
Amendments can easily be made
High possible economic losses
Total Plant Analysis
Done in a lab
Should be tested by stage of development
Random sampling key
Analysis of Plants

Indicate part of plant sampled & be

consistent
Dry to prevent spoilage (confounds
results)
Wrap in paper and mail w/ complete
report complete history,
information critical
Analysis of Plants
Interpreting Plant Analyses
Accurate interpretation difficult if not
all critical information provided
Element classified as deficient if
below threshold nutrient levels
Levels change through season, stage of
development, etc.
Some general disagreement from
scientists on what threshold levels are
Analysis of Plants
Critical Nutrient Range
CNR ranges at which nutrients are:
Visually deficient
Hidden deficient

Slightly deficient

Sufficient supply

Toxic
Analysis of Plants
Visual Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
Chlorosis yellowish to whitish
appearance to foliage, stem
Necrosis dead tissue
Causes: disease, insect damage, salt
accumulation, stress, nutrient
deficiencies
Some visual symptoms same for many
diseases/deficiencies
Analysis of Plants

Nutrients are relocated in the plant

by two pathways
Xylem water-carrying vessels
All nutrients can pass through
Phloem sugar-carrying vessels
Not all nutrients can relocate
Mobile nutrients travel freely
Immobile nutrients cant be moved from
their location in the plant
Mobile nutrient deficiencies tend to
occur on older leaves plant
sacrifices old for new tissue
Analysis of Plants

Immobile nutrient deficiencies

symptoms on shoot/root tips, fruits
Cant be treated from the soil w/
fertilizer plant cant send Ca (ex) to
the ripening fruit
Mobile nutrients:
N, P, K, Cl, Mg, S
Immobile nutrients:
Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Mo, S
Very immobile nutrients:
B, Ca
Fertilizer
Recommendations
Diferent labs make diferent
recommendations
Traditional philosophies being
challenged
P application rates
Yield-based N recommendations
Fertilizer
Recommendations
Developing a Fertilizer
Recommendation
Must have sufficient plot data to
correlate yields & nutrient needs
Once a general amount of fertilizer
is known:
Subtract for manure application
Subtract for residual P or N
Add/subtract for N, P, S because of soil
organic matter levels can count on
them supplying some
Fertilizer
Recommendations
Test Reports
Labs usually full-service
Soil, plant, manure, irrigation water
testing
See soil test report
Fertilizer Quality

Fertilizer grade amounts of N, P, K

in a fertilizer required by law to be
listed
Also required:
Weight of material, manufacturer
Optional:
Filler composition, acidity in soil potential

Calculating fertilizer N, P, K amounts

10-20-10
15-12-18
Fertilizer Quality
Amounts listed as: elemental N,
phosphate, potash (not direct indication
of elemental P, K supplied)
Acidity & Basicity of Fertilizers
Most afect soil acidity in some
regard
Superphosphate, Triplesuperphosphate,
Potash neutral
MAP, DAP, all N fertilizers acidifiers
Fertilizer Quality
Solubility & Mobility in Soil
Function of:
Elemental charge
Tendency to form insoluble compounds

Adsorption ability

Soil texture

Water movement

Concentration of other ions

Fertilizer Quality

Examples
P may only move a few cm
Must be place in/near root zone
N can move w/ extent of water
movement
Fertilizer Calculations
Calculating Fertilizer Mixtures
Mixing 34-0-0 ammonium nitrate & 0-
46-0 TSP to get 1 ton mixture of 15-
10-0
How much of each do we need?
How about if we needed a 12-14-6
fertilizer for a customer?
What might we use for each ingredient?
How much of each would we need?
Fertilizer Calculations
Weights of Fertilizer to Apply
Planting corn expected to yield 125
bu/ac
How much N do we need?
Soil analysis recommended 88#/ac
phosphate
How much ammonium nitrate & TSP do
we need?
What is our final application rate?
Fertilizer Calculations
Calculations Involving Liquid
Fertilizers
Use dry fertilizer calculation if sold
by weight
If sold by volume, usually applied by
volume
See example pg. 336
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Starter (Pop-Up) Fertilizers
Addition of fertilizer w/ the seed
during planting, dribbled in a strip
near the see, banding w/in 2 of seed
Most beneficial for P, K some for N,
but not as necessary
Advantages:
Cold soils
Low nutrient levels in the root zone
Fast-growing plants
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Disadvantages:
Slows planting
Can burn seedling, if placed too close

Broadcast Application
Uniform application across entire surface
Left on surface, or incorporated
Somewhat less efficiency of fertilizer
Especially when not incorporated quickly
Why?
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Reasons to broadcast:
Only practical method of application
pastures, turf, etc.
Low-fertility soils needing high fertilizer
rates
Easy, cheap, personal preference

Flexible split applications, ability to

add after crop is growing

Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Deep Banding
Application of strips into the soil
Either between/side of row, where
the seed may be planted
Typically 4-12 depth
Knifing in anhydrous most common
Gas able to dissolve in soil water before
it escapes
Losses can be high if dry, sandy
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Disadvantages:
Strong equipment needed
High fuel costs

Danger of dealing w/ anhydrous

Advantages:
High yield response potential
Puts fertilizer where most roots are,
very efficient use
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Split Application
Divided total fertilizer rates delivered
in 2+ applications
Reasons to split applications
If large applications are needed
increase efficiency of nutrient use
Soil conditions dictate risk for high

nutrient losses
Control vegetative growth in early stages
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Advantages:
Increased efficiency of N utilization
Provide a boost to the plant during
growth
Disadvantages:
Extra pass through field
Not efective for P, K because of
immobility
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Side-Dressing or Topdressing
Side-dressing surface or shallow band
application put on after crop is growing
Broadcast, surface stripped, sprayed,
knifed
Principles to consider:
Decreases potential N losses
Added in the furrow to allow water to help

w/ infiltration
Not efective for P, K
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Point Injector Application place
P, K into soil in the root zone
w/out significant root damage
Used more in small plots, gardens
Push stick, rod into soil, fill w/
fertilizer, cover
Efective for: fruit trees, grapes,
shrubs, etc.
Not common in field use
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Fertigation application of fertilizer
w/ irrigation water
Can apply large quantities of nutrients
Very efective for N
Some see 30-50% more efficient use of N
Cut of 50% in N rates w/ same/better yield

Must be careful of potential problem

w/ salts
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Able to apply when need is highest
Immediate/convenient application
Most efective on soils w/ poor
nutrient retention & for mobile
nutrients
Chemigation also possible not
discussed in depth here
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Foliar Application foliage wetted
to maximize nutrient absorption
through leaf stomata & epidermis
Feasible for: N supplementation,
pesticides, micronutrients, etc.
Guidelines:
Only suited for applications of small
amount (can burn plant)
Decreased rates can be used
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Need wetting agent to help the spray to
distribute evenly across surface
Helpful when root conditions restrict
nutrient uptake
Quick response/remedy to deficiency

(also short residual)

Wind must be calm, humidity >70%,
temp <85 F
Techniques of
Fertilizer Application
Fertilizing in Paddy & Other
Waterlogged Soils
Paddy rice production on water
covered soils
Water 2-6 deep
One of very few crops that tolerate
anaerobic conditions
Difficult to fertilize due to high
nutrient loss risks
Fertilizer Efficiency

Great focus on increasing efficiency of

fertilizer use
Research
Real-time sensors in soils that immediately
detect nutrient deficiency
Transgenic plants

Fertilizer Efficiency
fraction/percentage of added
fertilizer that is actually used by the
plant
Fertilizer Efficiency
Typical fertilizer efficiencies:
30-70% for N
5-30% for P
50-80% for K
Maximum profits rarely at maximum yields
Last amounts of fertilizer to produce more yield
cost more than yield increase
Management also key
Use of BMPs increasing
Encourage environmental protection
Couple w/ agronomic success
Increase economic yields, leading to sustainable
ag
Fertilizer Efficiency
Plant Root Systems
Some plants better scavengers than
others
Absorption greatly afected by
fertilizer distribution
Smaller root system = shorter growing
season = >dependence on fertilizer
Growth rates & size also efect amount
of nutrients demanded
Fertilizer Efficiency
Weeds
Response to fertilizer much like crops
N fertilization may increase weed
growth > crop growth
Application method can also afect
weed growth
Ex broadcast fertilizer can tend to help
weeds get good start
Fertilizer Efficiency
Fertilizer-Water Interactions
Availability of nutrients directed
impacted by soil water content
Drip fertigation may be most
efficient use of water & fertilizer
Common in greenhouses
Can be efective in field use
Israeli farming uses drip irrigation
Fertilizer Efficiency
Fertilizing for High Efficiency
Guides to optimal fertilization:
Avoid large additions of N or K (50#/ac
+) on sandy soils use split application
Avoid broadcast applications of urea &
ammonia on warm/moist soils
volatilizes easily incorporate
Avoid N losses on poorly drained soils
by using ammonium
Band P
Use starter fertilizer
Fertilizer Efficiency
Keep N & K fertilizers out of seedling
zone to avoid burn
Reduce leaching by avoiding application
before rain or irrigation
Foliar apply, if feasible/appropriate

Know nutrient demands of crop

Improve management

Remember law of minimum

Soil test
Livestock Manure as
Fertilizer
Many benefits of using manure:
Recycles nutrients
Potential to reduce pollution

Adds C to soil

Improve aggregation, infiltration,

microbial vigor
Risks:
Increased weed pressure
High cost of obtaining/applying if you
dont own it
Livestock Manure as
Fertilizer
Not as convenient as commercial
fertilizer
Pollution anxiety

Nutrient Production & Recovery

Production rates predictable &
measurable
Ration has heavy influence on
nutrients in manure
Livestock Manure as
Fertilizer
Manure & Nutrient Budgets
Generous applications of manure no
longer norm
Some states require & enforce strict
manure management guidelines
Restricted application due to soil P
levels instead of N
Manure still cant meet plant needs
alone
Crops remove much higher levels of
nutrients/ac
Livestock Manure as
Fertilizer
Using Manure
Most recognize advantages of using
manure
Manure production unevenly
distributed in farmland
Expensive to transport very far
Too abundant in areas, not enough
land for application
Livestock Manure as
Fertilizer
Must balance three factors
Supply crop nutrients
Dispose of waste

Protect environment

More focus on manure later

Assignment