CHAPTER 2:

BONDING AND PROPERTIES

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What promotes bonding?

What types of bonds are there?

What properties are inferred from bonding?

Chapter 2-1
Adhesive forces

Chapter 2-
 BOHR ATOM
orbital electrons:
n = principal
quantum number 1
n=3 2 Adapted from Fig. 2.1,
Callister 6e.

Nucleus: Z = # protons
= 1 for hydrogen to 94 for plutonium
N = # neutrons
Atomic mass A Z + N

Chapter 2-2
 ELECTRON ENERGY STATES
Electrons...
have discrete energy states
tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
In c re a s in g e n e rg y

4p
n=4 3d
4s
n=3 3p
3s
n=2 2p
2s
n=1 1s Adapted from Fig. 2.5,
Callister 6e.

Chapter 2-3
 STABLE ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Stable electron configurations...
have complete s and p subshells
tend to be unreactive.

Z Element Configuration
2 He 1s2 Adapted from Table 2.2,
10 Ne 1s22s 22p6 Callister 6e.

18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6
36 Kr 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6

Chapter 2-4
 SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s1
Helium 2 1s2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s22s1
Beryllium 4 1s22s2
Boron 5 1s22s22p1 Adapted from Table 2.2,
1s22s22p2 Callister 6e.
Carbon 6
... ...
Neon 10 1s22s22p6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s22s22p63s1
Magnesium 12 1s22s22p63s2
Aluminum 13 1s22s22p63s23p1
... ...
Argon 18 1s22s22p63s23p6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s246 (stable)

Why? Valence (outer) shell usually not filled completely.

Chapter 2-5
 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Columns: Similar Valence Structure

in e rt g a s e s
g iv e u p 1 e
g iv e u p 2 e

accept 2e
accept 1e
Metal
g iv e u p 3 e
Nonmetal
H He
Li Be Intermediate Ne
O F
Na Mg Adapted
S Cl Ar
from Fig.
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr 2.6, Callister
6e.
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
Chapter 2-6
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,
Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.
H He
2.1 -
Li Be F Ne
1.0 1.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell
University.
Chapter 2-7
 IONIC BONDING
Occurs between + and - ions.
Requires electron transfer.
Large difference in electronegativity required.
Example: NaCl

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction

Chapter 2-8
 EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING
Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF 2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 CsCl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell
University.
Chapter 2-9
 COVALENT BONDING
Requires shared electrons
Example: CH4 shared electrons
H
C: has 4 valence e, from carbon atom
CH 4
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
Electronegativities H from hydrogen
are comparable. atoms

Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 6e.

Chapter 2-10
 EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING
H2O

c o lu m n IV A
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
SiC - Cl2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is GaAs
adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition,
Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

Molecules with nonmetals

Molecules with metals and nonmetals
Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)
Compound solids (about column IVA) Chapter 2-11
 METALLIC BONDING
Arises from a sea of donated valence electrons
(1, 2, or 3 from each atom).

+ + +

+ + +

+ + + Adapted from Fig. 2.11, Callister 6e.

Primary bond for metals and their alloys

Chapter 2-12
 SECONDARY BONDING
Arises from interaction between dipoles
Fluctuating dipoles
asymmetric electron ex: liquid H2
clouds H2 H2

+ - secondary + - H H H H
secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13, Callister 6e. bonding

Permanent dipoles-molecule induced

Adapted from Fig. 2.14,
secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ - Callister 6e.

secondary Adapted from Fig. 2.14,

-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding H Cl Callister 6e.

-ex: polymer

Chapter 2-13
15
Chapter 2-
 SUMMARY: BONDING
Type Bond Energy Comments
Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)

Variable Directional
Covalent large-Diamond semiconductors, ceramics
small-Bismuth polymer chains)

Variable
Metallic large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Directional
Secondary smallest inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular

Chapter 2-14
 PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: TM
Bond length, r Melting Temperature, Tm
F
F Energy (r)
r

Bond energy, Eo ro
r
Energy (r)
smaller Tm
unstretched length
ro larger T m
r
E o= Tm is larger if Eo is larger.
bond energy

Chapter 2-15
TM vs Bonding Energy

Chapter 2-
 PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E
Elastic modulus, Ecross
sectional
length, L o
area A o
Elastic modulus
undeformed F L
L =E
Ao Lo
deformed F

E ~ curvature at ro
Energy

unstretched length
ro E is larger if Eo is larger.
r
smaller Elastic Modulus

larger Elastic Modulus Chapter 2-16

 PROPERTIES FROM BONDING:
Coefficient of thermal expansion,
length, L o coeff. thermal expansion
unheated, T1
L L
=(T2-T1)
heated, T2 Lo

~ symmetry at ro
Energy

ro
r is larger if Eo is smaller.
larger

smaller
Chapter 2-17
 SUMMARY: PRIMARY BONDS
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small

Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate

Polymers Directional Properties

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates
small T
small E
large

Chapter 2-18