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Todays agendum:
Electromagnetic Waves.
2
We began this course by studying fields that didnt vary
with timethe electric field due to static charges, and
the magnetic field due to a constant current.
Maxwells Equations
q enclosed
E dA o B dA 0
d B d E
E d s dt B d s o Iencl o dt
These four equations provide a complete description of
electromagnetism.
r r r r
E B 0
0
r r
r r dB r r 1 dE r
E=- B= 2 + 0 J
dt c dt 4
Production of Electromagnetic Waves
x direction of
propagation
z
5
y
x direction of
propagation
z
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=35
6
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, but are
not mechanical waves (they need no medium to vibrate
in).
Therefore, electromagnetic waves can propagate in
free space.
x direction of
propagation
z
7
Manipulation of Maxwells equations leads to the
following plane wave equations for E and B:
2Ey 2Ey (x,t) 2Bz 2Bz (x,t)
= 00 = 00
x 2
t2 x 2
t2
Bz =Bmaxsin kx- t
2
where k= , =2f , and f = =c.
k
You can verify this by direct substitution.
Emax and Bmax in these notes are sometimes written by others as E 0 and
8
B0.
You can also show that
Ey Bz
=-
x t
Emax E 1
= = =c= .
Bmax B k 00
Bz =Bmaxsin kx- t
x direction of
propagation
z
Electromagnetic Waves.
12
Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves
E
S
x
B c Because B = E/c we can write
z E2 cB2
S= = .
0c 0
Ey =Emaxsin kx- t
EM waves are sinusoidal.
Bz =Bmaxsin kx- t
15
Energy Density
2
E
1 B2 1 c 1 00E2 1 2
uB = = = = 0E
2 0 2 0 2 0 2
1 2 1 B2
uB =uE = 0E =
2 2 0
16
1 2 1 B2
uB =uE = 0E =
2 2 0
17
2
B
u=uB +uE = 0E2 =
0
When we average this instantaneous energy density
over one or more cycles of an electromagnetic wave,
we again get a factor of from the time average of
sin2(kx - t). 2 2
1 2 1 Bmax 1 2 1 Bmax
uE = 0Emax , uB = , and u = 0Emax =
4 4 0 2 2 0
2 2
1 Emax 1 cBmax
Recall Saverage = S = = so we see thatS =c u .
2 0c 2 0
I =
power
=
P
=
5.0010 W4
=7.96 10-7
W m2
area average 2R 2 1.0010 m
2 5 2
=2.4510-2 V
m
Bmax =
Emax
=
2.4510-2 V
m =8.1710-11 T
c 3 108
m s
20
Example: for the radio station in the example on the
previous two slides, calculate the average energy
densities associated with the electric and magnetic
field.
2
1 2 1 Bmax
uE = 0Emax uB =
4 4 0
1 8.17 10
-11 2
1
uE = 8.8510 2.4510
-12 -2 2
uB =
4 4 410-7
J J
uE =1.3310 -15
uB =1.3310 -15
m3 m3
21
Todays agendum:
Electromagnetic Waves.
22
Momentum and Radiation Pressure
incident
reflected
2U
p = (total reflection along incident path)
c
26
I incident
Prad = (total absorption)
c
2I incident
Prad = (total reflection)
c
reflected
27
Example: a satellite orbiting the earth has solar energy
collection panels with a total area of 4.0 m2. If the
suns radiation is incident perpendicular to the panels
and is completely absorbed find the average solar
power absorbed and the average force associated with
the radiation pressure. The intensity (I or Saverage) of
sunlight prior to passing through the earths
atmosphere is 1.4 kW/m2.
Power =IA= 1.4 103 W 2 4.0 m2 =5.6 103 W=5.6 kW
m
I m =4.710 Pa
Saverage 1.4 103 W 2
Caution! The letter
-6 P (or p) has been
Prad = = =
c c 3108 m
s used in this lecture
for power,
pressure, and
m
F =PradA= 4.710-6 N 2 4.0 m2 =1.910-5N
momentum!
28
Todays agendum:
Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.
Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.
29
Light
30
*LightWaves or Particles?
http://www.nearingzero.net
(quantum007.jpg)
31
*Both! Take Physics 203 for further enlightenment!
The Speed of Light
33
Geometric Optics
http://www.nearingzero.net (ray.jpg)
34
A light ray is an infinitely thin beam of light. Of
course, there really isnt such a thing, but the concept
helps us visualize properties of light.
http://www.nearingzero.net
(rays.jpg)
35
Light rays from some
external source strike an
object and reflect off it in
all directions.
We only see those light
rays that reflect in the
direction of our eyes.
Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.
37
Reflection
i r
http://www.mic-
d.com/java/specular/
39
Refraction
http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/light/rayOptics/refraction/refraction1.html
41
Because light never travels faster than c, n 1. For
water, n = 1.33 and for glass, n 1.5. Indices of
refraction for several materials are listed in your text.
3108 m/s
v =
2.42
v = 1.24108 m/s
42
Snells Law
When light moves from one medium into another, some
is reflected at the boundary, and some is transmitted.
The transmitted light is refracted (bent).
a is the angle of incidence, and b is the angle of
refraction.
in re
ci fr
d en ac
t te
d
ra
y a ra b
air (na) y air (nb)
water (nb) water (na)
b a
inc
ref
deni
rac
t
ted
ray
nb>na na>nb
ray
43
Light passing from air (n 1) into water (n 1.33).
in
ci
d en
t ra
y a
air (na)
water (nb)
b
ref
rac
ted
nb>na
ray
44
Light passing from water (n 1.33) into air (n 1).
re
fr
ac
te
d
ra b
y air (nb)
water (na)
a
inc
deni
t
ray
na>nb
45
Snells Law, also called the law of refraction, gives
the relationship between angles and indices of
refraction:
a = n bsin b .
na sin
a a
b b
Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.
47
Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics
n1 sin 1 = n 2sin 2
n2
1 = sin
sin 2
n1
1 > C
Another
visualization
here.
49
n2
n1>n
2
n1>n2
51
n2
n1>n2
52
n2
n1>n2
n1>n2
http://laser.physics.sunysb.edu/~wise/wise187/janfeb2001/rep
orts/andrea/report.html 55
Example: determine the incident angle i for which
light strikes the inner surface of a fiber optic cable at
the critical angle.
Light is incident f
at an angle i on i
a transparent nf>1
fiber. ni=1 (air)
ni sin i = n ffsin
sin i = n ffsin
56
Light strikes the 90
fiber wall an an 90-f
f
angle of i
90-f normal to the nf>1
(used in binoculars)
application: diamonds
59
Todays agendum:
Introduction to Light.
You must develop a general understanding of what light is and how it behaves.
Dispersion.
You must understand that the index of refraction of a material is wavelength-
dependent.
60
Dispersion
61
62
Picture from the Exploratorium (http://www.exploratorium.edu/).
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.
63
Mirrors
s s
s s
66
y/2
y/2
s s
67
y/
2
y/
2
s s
68
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.
69
Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors
Of course, you dont really make these mirrors by cutting out part of a sphere of
70
glass.
The radius of curvature, R, is the radius of the
sphere, or the distance from V to C.
R
C V
71
The principal axis (or optical axis) is the line that
passes through the center of curvature and the center
of the mirror.
R
Principal or Optical C V
Axis
The center of the mirror is often called the vertex of the mirror.72
Paraxial rays are parallel to the principal axis of the
mirror (from an object infinitely far away). Reflected
paraxial rays pass through a common point known as
the focal point F.
C F V
73
The focal length f is the distance from P to F. Your text
shows that f = R/2.
f
C F P
74
Reality check: paraxial rays dont really pass exactly
through the focal point of a spherical mirror (spherical
aberration).
C F V
75
If the mirror is small compared to its radius of
curvature, or the object being imaged is close to the
principal axis, then the rays essentially all focus at a
single point.
C F V
C F V
77
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.
78
Concave and Convex Mirrors
concave convex
F
79
Ray Diagrams for Mirrors
Real image: you could put a camera there and detect the 81
image.
The image from a concave mirror, object inside the
focal point, is virtual, upright, and larger than the
object.
Ray 1: parallel to the Ray 2: through F then
axis then through F. parallel to the axis.
Ray 3: through C.
C F
Ray 3: through C.
no image
C F
y' s' C y
m= = - F
y s s
84
1 1 1 y' s'
+ = m= = -
s s' f y s
Sign conventions for the mirror equation:
y f
C y F
s
s, s, or f on reflecting side are
+
y is if image is inverted
86
Applications of concave mirrors.
Shaving mirrors.
Makeup mirrors.
Solar cookers.
87
Todays agendum:
Plane Mirrors.
You must be able to draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors, and be able to calculate
image and object heights, distances, and magnifications.
88
Ray Diagrams for Convex Mirrors
Ray 3: through C.
F C
F C
s
f
y s
y
F C
1 1 1 1 1
= =
s' f s -0.2 m 10 m
Not on On reflecting
reflecting sidepositiv
sidenegative e. 92
.
1 1 1
=
s' -0.2 m 10 m
algebra
s' -0.196 m 1
m= - = - =
s 10 m 51
93
Applications of convex mirrors.
94
Sign Conventions Introduced Today
95
Summary of Sign Conventions
97
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces
Convex surface:
1
R
2
axi
s C F
f
n nb>n
a a
axi
s
C F
s f
s
n nb>n
a a
F C axi
s
f
n nb>n
a a
F C axi
s
f
n nb>n
a a
axi
C F
s R
s f
s
n nb
a
na nb nb - na y' nas'
+ = m= =-
s s' R y nbs 102
The same equations work for concave surfaces.
F C s axi
s
s
f
n nb
a
na nb nb - na y' nas'
+ = m= =-
s s' R y nbs 103
Approximations Were Used!
104
Sign Conventions
1.6 1 1-1.6
+ =
s -5.0 -3
s= 4 mm nb=1 na=1.6
R
s
s
107
Todays agendum:
108
Thin Lenses
110
Converging and Diverging Lenses
112
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.
113
Ray Diagrams for Converging Lenses
I
O F F
O F I F
116
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.
117
The Lensmakers Equation
s
s s s
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 = n-1
+ = n-1 f Ra Rb
s s' Ra Rb
1 1 1 y' s'
The Lensmakers Equation + = M= = -
s s' f y 118s
Sign Conventions for The Lens Equation
1 1 1 y' s'
+ = M= = -
s s' f y s
The focal length f is positive for converging lenses and
negative for diverging lenses.
O F F
1 1 1 1 1 1 s' -10
= - = - =- M= - =- =2
s' f s +10 +5 10 s 5
Image distance is 10 cm, image is on side of lens light
is coming from, so image is virtual. M=2 so image is120
Todays agendum:
Refraction at Spherical Surfaces.
You must be able to calculate properties of images formed by refraction at spherical
surfaces.
121
Lens Combinations
122
Optical Instruments
A Simple Magnifier
h
O
25 cm (near point)
I F O p
q
Magnifier 123
Refracting Telescope
h
h h fe fo
tan o o tan M
fo fe o h fe
fo
124
Terrestrial Telescopes
125
Reflecting Telescope
Eyepiece magnification:
.25
Me
fe
Overall magnification:
.25 l f e .25l
M M e mo
fe p fe fo
127
Summary of Sign Conventions
Mirrors Lenses
The focal length f is positive for
converging lenses and negative for
diverging lenses.
130
Interference
Review of Waves
132
Superpositiona Characteristic of All Waves
134
Todays agendum:
Review of Waves.
You are expected to recall facts about waves from Physics 103.
135
Youngs Double Slit Experiment
Interesting reading: the double slit experiment and quantum mechanics. 136
How does this work?
138
Conditions for Interference
Sources must be
monochromatic-of a single
wavelength.
Sources must be coherent--
must maintain a constant
phase with respect to each
other.
139
For an infinitely distant* scree
L1
y L1
S1 L2
d
P d
y L2
tan
L R
S2 L = L2 L1 = d sin
140
L1 Constructive Interference:
L d sin m, m=0, 1, 2...
d
L2 Destructive Interference:
L = L2 L1 = d sin 1
L d sin m+ , m=0, 1, 2...
2
142
y R tan R sin
L1
y Dark fringes:
S1 L2 1
m d sin
2
d 1 y
y P m d
tan 2 R
L R
S2 R 1
y m
d 2
143
Example: a viewing screen is separated from the
double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe
(m = 2) is 4.5 cm from the center line. Determine the
wavelength of the light.
y R tan R sin
Bright fringes: L1
y
S1
m d sin L2
y P
m d tan
y
R L R
S2
yd
Rm
R
4.5 10-2
5.6 10
m 3.0 10-5 m 7
m 560 nm
1.2 m 2 144
Example: a viewing screen is separated from the
double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe
(m = 2) is 4.5 cm from the center line. Find the
distance between adjacent bright fringes.
y R tan R sin
L1
Bright fringes: y
S1
L2
m d sin
y y P
tan
m d L R
R S2
R
y m
d R
ym+1-ym
R R
m 1 m
R
5.6 10 m 1.2 m 2.2 10-
7
2
m 2.2 cm
d d d 3.0 10 m
-5 145
Example: a viewing screen is separated from the
double-slit source by 1.2 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.030 mm. The second-order bright fringe
(m = 2) is 4.5 cm from the center line. Find the width of
the bright fringes.
Define the bright fringe width to
be the distance between two
adjacent destructive minima. L1
y
1 ydark S1
m d sin d L2
2 R
R 1 y P
ydark m tan
S2 L R
d 2
R 1 R 1 R
ydark,m+1-ydark,m m 1 m R
d 2 d 2 d
ydark,m+1-ydark,m
5.6 10 m 1.2 m 2.2 cm
7
3.0 10 m
-5
146
Todays agendum:
Review of Waves.
You are expected to recall facts about waves from Physics 103.
147
Intensity in the Double Slit Experiment
148
The derivation of the double-slit intensity equation is
not particularly difficult, so study it if you find
derivations helpful for your understanding.
150
Why did my previous diagrams show this?
Todays agendum: Interference Due to Reflection.
Examples.
You must be able to solve problems similar to these examples.
151
Interference from Reflection
152
Todays agendum: Interference Due to Reflection.
Examples.
You must be able to solve problems similar to these examples.
153
Thin Film Interference
Thin film
interference is
caused by
phase
difference of
reflected waves
due to reflection
off a higher-n
material, and
http://www.photographyblog.com/gallery/showphoto.php?photo=5545
Film
Ray has a t nAir < nFilm
phase change
due to the path
difference. Air
No phase change
We get
Air
constructive
interference Film
when the path t n <n
film = Air Film
difference is nfilm
film/2, 3film/2,
Air
5film/2, etc.
We will get constructive interference when the
path difference is a half-integral number of
wavelengths:
1 1 1
2t = m+ film = m+ 2nfilmt = m+ ,m=0,1, 2...
2 2 nfilm 2
157
The equations below are not on your starting equation
sheet.
180 phase change
Film
2nfilmt =m t nAir < nFilm
film =
nfilm
1
2nfilmt = m+
2 Air
No phase change
Air
Film
t nAir < nFilm
film =
nfilm
Air
161
Todays agendum: Interference Due to Reflection.
Examples.
You must be able to solve problems similar to these examples.
162
Example: a glass lens is coated on one side with a thin
film of MgF2 to reduce reflection from the lens surface.
The index of refraction for MgF2 is 1.38 and for glass is
1.50. What is the minimum thickness of MgF2 that
eliminates reflection of light of wavelength = 550
nm? Assume approximately perpendicular angle of
incidence for the light.
180 phase change
Both rays and 180
experience a 180 phase Air phase
shift on reflection so the nAir = 1.00 change
total phase difference is MgF2
due to the path difference t
n= 1.38
of the two rays.
t H Hx
= t=
x L L
Hx L
2 =m x =m =m
0.1 m 500 nm
=m 1.25 mm
L 2H 2 210 m
-5
Hx 1 1 L
2 = m+ x = m+
L 2 2 2H
H t
x
L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 168
m
Example: suppose the glass plates have ng = 1.50 and
the space between them contains water (nw = 1.33).
What happens now?
x =m
L water
=m
0.1 m 500 nm/1.33
=m 0.94 mm
2H 2 210 m
-5
H t
x
L = 10 cm
H = 2x10-5 170
m
Two lectures ago I showed you these two plots of the
intensity distribution in the double-slit experiment:
<<d d >>d
173
Single Slit Diffraction
One of the
assumptions in the
calculation was that
the slit width was very
small compared with a
the wavelength of the
Now
light.we consider
the effect of finite
slit width. We start
with a single slit.
Each part of the slit acts as a source of light rays, and
these different light rays interfere. 174
Divide the slit in half.
Ray travels
a/2
farther* than ray
a
by (a/2)sin.
a/2
Likewise for rays
and .
a
If this path difference is exactly sin
2
half a wavelength (corresponding
to a phase difference of 180)
then the two waves will cancel
each other and destructive
interference results.
a
Destructive interference: sin =
2 2
*All rays from the slit are converging at a point P very far to the right and out of the
175
picture.
Destructive
interferenc
e:
a
sin = a/2
2 2 a
a/2
a sin =
a
sin
sin = 2
a
a
sin
2
a
If is small,* then it is
O
valid to use the
approximation sin
.
( must be expressed
in radians.) x
2
= a sin
2
sin /2
I =I 0
/2
Toy
180
Example: 633 nm laser light is passed through a narrow
slit and a diffraction pattern is observed on a screen
6.0 m away. The distance on the screen between the
centers of the first minima outside the central bright
fringe is 32 mm. What is the slit width?
L
sin = a=
a sin y1/L y1
6.0 m 63310-9 m
a=
16 10-3
m
a=2.3710-4 m
181
Resolution of Single Slit (and Circular Aperture)
183
From Rayleighs criterion we can determine the
minimum angular separation of the sources at the slit
for which the images are resolved.
These come from a=
sin
the small angle
For a slit of width a: = approximation, and geometry.
a
1.22
For a circular aperture of diameter =
D: D
Resolution is wavelength limited! 184
If a single slit diffracts, what about a double slit?
2 d sin
I =I max cos
r1
y
a
S1 r2
P
d
S2
186
Diffraction Gratings
A diffraction grating consists of a large number of
equally spaced parallel slits.
double-slit
d sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ... interference
constructive
single-slit diffraction
a sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ... destructive!
diffraction grating
d sin =m, m=1, 2, 3, ... constructive
188
Diffraction Grating Intensity Distribution
Interference Maxima:
d sin =m
= d sin
The intensity maxima are
brighter and sharper than
for the two slit case. 189
190
Application: spectroscopy
visible light
hydrogen
helium
mercury
You can view the atomic spectra for each of the elements here.
191
Example: the wavelengths of visible light are from
approximately 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red). Find
the angular width of the first-order visible spectrum
produced by a plane grating with 600 slits per
millimeter when white light falls normally on the
grating.
Interference Maxima: d sin =m
1
d= =1.67 10-6 m
600 slits/mm
V 1 40010-9 m
First-order violet: sin V =m = =0.240
d 1.6710 m
-6
V =13.9
192
R 1 70010-9 m
First-order red: sin R =m = =0.419
d 1.6710 m
-6
R =24.8
10.9
V 3 40010-9 m 1.2010-6 m
sin V =m =
Third-order violet: =
d d d
V 2 70010-9 m 1.4010-6 m
sin R =m =
Second-order red: =
d d d
sin R2 >sin V3
avg
The resolving power is defined Ras
= .
195
avg
R=
For a grating with N lines illuminated it can be shown
that the resolving power in the mth order diffraction is
R =Nm.
Dispersion
mercury
577 nm + 579 nm
avg = = 578 nm
2
avg
578 nm
R= = =289
2 nm
197
Example: how many lines of the grating must be
illuminated if these two wavelengths are to be resolved
in the first-order spectrum?
mercury
R =289
R 289
R =Nm N= = =289
m 1
198
199