A PRESENTATION ON END

EQUIPMENT OF POWER
GENERATION
THE SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
BY ABHIJIT NANDI (MANAGER, KTPS,WBPDCL)
 INTRODUCTION
Invention Michael Faraday, 1831.
Establishment of AC over DC At the end of the 19 th century.
High speed steam turbine driven generators were introduced by 1900. Steam turbines
have efficiencies at high speeds.
Capacity of around 50 MW generator achieved by 1930.
Basic principle is EM induction.
Highest possible speed achievable in a 50 C/S alternating system N=
120f/p = 3000 rpm with a two pole m/c.
An electricity generator in a network is to be operated in synchronism with the
others. Generation parameters such as V,f, loading etc will be determined externally.
Two types of pole design Salient & Cylindrical.
High speed m/c are of cylindrical rotor type.
To increase capacity extra cooling became necessary. By 1950 H2 as coolant was
established.
Main components and associated system of high speed turbine driven generators
commonly known as turbo-generators are Stator, Rotor, Cooling system, Sealing
system, Excitation system, and Protection.
 BASIC THEORY

EM induction in stator
conductor system or armature
by rotor field.
Armature current results
armature reaction causing cross
and demagnetization.
For resistive load current
distortion of rotor field occurs.
Inductive load current opposes
rotor field, reduces stator e.m.f.
Capacitive load current assists
rotor field, increases stator
e.m.f.
 Generator voltage is maintained by AVR. Different types of loading affects
p.f. and thus VAR generation.
A fictitious reactance accounting the armature reaction may be assumed.
Combined with a reactance representing leakage flux we get what is called
synchronous reactance.
A simple equivalent circuit and vector diagram representation may be as
follows.
 Load angle is the change of angular position of the rotor and stator
field when m/c gets loaded. At = 0 there will be no power transfer.
Electric power developed as output P = Er.V sin / Xs and it comes
solely from the mechanical power supplied by the prime mover.
 Maximum possible output power is at = 90 which imposes a
stability limit. In transient condition this limit is at some lower value.
Otherwise the m/c will loose stability and fall out of synchronization.
 With all of the limitations taking into account capacity of the prime
mover, mechanical stresses, temperature rise and stability of operation,
what we get is the capability curve denoting operating zone of the m/c.
 MAIN COMPONENETS AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEM
STATOR $

Undesirable heat losses hysteresis loss in magnetic part and eddy current loss in associated metal
part.
Comprising a magnetic part core, a conducting part winding.
Hysteresis loss f Bmx , (x = 1.5 to 2) minimized using low loss material such as grain oriented
silicon steel for core building.
Eddy current loss t2 f2 B2 / , ( - resistivity) minimized making core from laminations of
thinner plates and of higher resistivity. Copper rings are used as flux shield to reduce eddy current
loss by leakage fluxes.
Core stampings designed with slots pressed by end rings are held by core bars and fixed with the
stator body.
Stator windings are of 3-phase, bar type, double layer, chorded, double star.
Distribution and chording reduce effect of the harmonics. Rotor coils are so arranged as to
produce a sinusoidal flux distribution in the air gap, but still due to some irregularities in the air gap
flux path, harmonics are induced.
For a full pitched concentric coil E = 4.44 f t and that for a short pitched distributed one, E = 4.44
kd kc f t .
Conductor bars placed inside the core slots are connected to form coil groups, then to bus bars,
which are brought out through terminal bushings. Phases are connected to the transformer and
neutrals are grounded through grounding transformer.
Bars are made of insulated conductor strips and hollow conductors (direct cooling), transposed
by 360 to reduce eddy current induction, insulated (epoxy mica thermosetting) and held inside the
slots with wedges and packings. Water is supplied through teflon tubes. Temperature monitoring of
the core and winding are done by RTD sensors.
 ROTOR $

Made from solid forging of alloy steel, slots are cut around 2/3 rd of the periphery.
Dynamic strength and operating stability is very important, operates in oil lubricated bearing
support.
Winding bars are of silver bearing copper, brazed at the ends to form a coil. End of the windings
are connected to flexible leads for supply of DC excitation. Inside the slot bars are held by
duralumin wedges. End turns outside the slots are held by retaining rings. Insulating separators
are used for insulating the conductors.
Higher capacity m/c rotors are directly cooled by hydrogen. Pressure head developed due to
high rotational speed causes H2 to flow through wedge holes, sub-slots and channels in the coils.
Fans are mounted on the rotor to circulate cooling gas through the stator and to assist natural
flow through the rotor.
During rapid flux change regime induced current in the rotor surface flows preferentially through
the wedges which act as damper winding.
In slip ring type of excitation, slip rings of alloy steel are shrunk fitted on the rotor shaft and
brush gear is provided on the extended part of rotor bearing pedestal. In case of brush-less
excitation, exciter generator and rotating rectifier system are arranged in the extended part of
rotor shaft.
Circulation of current due to induced voltage on the rotor shaft is prevented providing insulation
barriers in bearing pedestals, seals, oil pipe lines,wipers.
 COOLING SYSTEM

Hydrogen as coolant increases capacity and efficiency.

Advantages over air density 1/14th, reduces windage loss and noise; specific heat
14 times and heat transfer coefficient 1.5 times, exchanges heat more readily;
thermal conductivity 7 times, reduces temperature gradient and thermal stress; does
not support combustion, reduces insulation corona discharge and increases life.
H2air mixture between 5:95% and 75:25% are explosive. Purity inside generator
is maintained 97% or more.
H2 cooling at 3 atmospheric pressure estimated to increase m/c rating by 40%.
Fans mounted on the rotor circulate H2 through coolers and ventilating ducts inside
the stator core.
Driers are provided to remove moisture from the gas and gas quality is monitored by
purity meters.
During filling and purging process rich air mixture is to be avoided.
In higher capacity m/c direct cooling of stator conductor is done circulating DM
water through the hollow conductors and resistivity of the water is maintained
adequately.
 SEALING SYSTEM
To avoid escape of H2 space between stator casing and the rotor is to be sealed at
both ends.
Two types of sealing are used Radial or thrust type and Ring type of single
flow and double flow.
In thrust type, sealing is obtained by feeding seal oil through liner holes at a
pressure 0.9 to 0.8 kg/cm2 higher than H2 pressure. A continuous film of oil is
formed between seal liner and shaft collar. The liner is pressed in position against
the collar by means of thrust oil (1 2 kg/cm2). The seal oil and thrust oil
chambers made between liner and its housing are sealed with rubber cords. The
liner can move axially over these cords. Major part of the oil flows towards the
bearing side and mixes with bearing drain. Hydrogen side oil is collected by
catchers, drained separately to hydraulic seal tank where H2 is liberated.
Ring type seal consists of two short bearings in the form of bronze rings fitting
closely to the rotor shaft by a spring. Oil is forced between the rings, passes in both
axial directions along the shaft sealing H2. Radial position of the rings are kept in
balance by the spring and oil pressure. Axial movements are prevented by stoppers.
Separator tanks and vacuum systems are there for H2 side drain collection. In
double oil flow system, separate seal oil circuits are provided for H2 side and air
side seal and thus H2 ingress in seal oil is kept at a minimum.
 EXCITATION SYSTEM
Rectified AC is universally employed for rotor excitation.
Two types are in main use : Static rectifier system DC output is supplied to the rotor
winding via slip rings; Brush-less rectifier unit rotates on a directly driven shaft on the
rotor.
Static excitation excitation power is taken from the generator output via step-down
transformer, rectified by SCR bridges and fed to the rotor field. An AC signal taken from the
generator output is rectified, filtered and compared against a reference. The error signal is
amplified, fed to grid control unit to generate triggering pulse.the pulse output is amplified
and transmitted to the gates of the thyristors. Limiters are there to limit over-excitation,
under-excitation, rotor current, stator current and rotor angle. Slip stabilizing unit helps to
suppress rotor oscillation. With the closing of field breaker a separate DC is applied through
field flushing unit to build up voltage up to 30% and it automatically switches off when
voltage reaches 70%. Field discharge resistor is used in field suppression unit to avoid over
voltage.
Brush-less excitation consists of a 3-phase pilot exciter, 3-phase main exciter, rotating
rectifier bridges, cooler, and metering and supervising system. The pilot exciter has
revolving field with permanent magnet poles. Output is controlled, rectified and fed to the
main exciter field. AC output is rectified in the rotating diode bridge and supplied to the
rotor field. As there is no slip ring and brush gear assembly, maintenance requirement is low.
 MAJOR FAULTS
Stator earth fault may occur due to insulation failure, overheating caused by failure
of water circulation, broken core stamping damaging insulation. E/F current flowing
through the stator core may cause excessive damage to the core.
Inter phase fault this fault and E/F could be the result of moisture or deterioration due
to ageing or foreign matters etc. In inter phase fault power output is reduced and causing
tendency to over-speed.
Inter turn fault two conductors of same phase may be shorted and causes damage to
the winding.
Loss of excitation due to field failure generator draws reactive power from the system
resulting voltage drop and instability. Stator gets heated as high stator current flows
owing to the reactive demand. Rotor heats up due to induced current flowing through the
winding when in closed path.
Unbalanced loading a negative sequence current flows through the stator winding,
which induces double frequency current to flow through the rotor winding resulting
overheating.
Rotor E/F certain part of the rotor winding is bypassed disturbing flux pattern and
hence producing unbalanced forces and vibrations. M/c can run with a single E/F, a
second E/F can cause large fault currents and damage.
Under frequency demands high rotor current. Over-fluxing and core vibrations due to
over excitation may result.
Reverse power in case of disruption of prime mover input, generator may receive
power from the grid. It will result in heating of the turbine blades and excessive
vibration.
 SOME HEALTH ASSESSMENT MEASURES

To assess health of the winding insulations, rotor and core conditions.

Insulation resistance and polarization index measurements are done and necessary dry
out of the winding is followed to raise the above values above the recommended
minimum. Absorption coefficient is the ratio of 1 minute value to 15 seconds value of IR
and polarization index is the ratio of 10 minutes value to 1 minute value and these are
used to assess degree of dryness of the insulation.
Tan test is done to check for stator winding stress grading, to assess dielectric losses
and homogeneity of insulation.
Electrical ageing occurs at operating voltage and over voltage stresses. General
deterioration is caused by partial discharge in cavities or in insulation surfaces. On-load
partial discharge monitoring can help to track such flaws.
Recurrent Surge Oscillograph (RSO) test is done to detect inter-turn and earth faults in
the rotor.
Defects in inter-laminar insulation of stator core cause local fault currents, which can
overheat and damage the core. In ELCID test, core is excited using a toroidal winding to
4% of its normal working level and fault currents across the laminations are detected and
analyzed to check core healthiness.
 CONCLUSION

Efficiency of the conventional thermal power generating cycle has

approached the limiting value of around 40%.
Integrated coal gasification combined cycle power plants with high
temperature gas turbines (1400 C) are projected to reach 60%
efficiency.
Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) generation is a developing option
of high temperature conversion of heat to electrical energy.
A different technology is fast developing to generate electricity
fuel cell, where hydrogen is used as fuel to produce electric energy
in a process following reverse of electrolysis.