Dr. Senthilmurugan S.

Department of Chemical Engineering IIT Guwahati - Part 2

Laws of Heat Transfer

Conduction, Convection and
Radiation
The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics At steady state

(conservation of energy principle) states
that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.

The energy balance for any system

undergoing any process in the rate form

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Energy balance for closed systems (Fixed Mass)

A closed system consists of a fixed In the absence of any work interactions,

mass. the change in the energy content of a
The total energy E for most systems closed system is equal to the net heat
encountered in practice consists of the transfer
internal energy U.

This is especially the case for stationary

systems since they dont involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation
during a process.
where Q is the net amount of heat transfer
to or from the system. This is the form of
the energy balance relation we will use
most often when dealing with a fixed mass

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Energy balance for steady-flow systems

A large number of engineering devices

such as water heaters and car radiators
involve mass flow in and out of a
system, and are modeled as control
volumes.
Most control volumes are analyzed
under steady operating conditions.
The term steady means no change with
time at a specified location. Under steady conditions, the net rate of
energy transfer to a fluid in a control
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass
volume is equal to the rate of increase
flowing through a cross section of a flow
in the energy of the fluid stream flowing
device per unit time.
through the control volume
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid
flowing through a pipe or duct per unit
time. q

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Surface energy balance

A surface contains no volume or mass,

and thus no energy. Therefore, a
surface can be viewed as a fictitious
system whose energy content remains
constant during a process.

q3

This relation is valid for both steady and

transient conditions, and the surface
q1
energy balance does not involve heat q2
generation since a surface does not
have a volume.

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How to Define Energy Transfer Quantitatively

Energy can be transferred to or from a

given mass by two mechanisms:
Heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate : The amount of heat
transferred per unit time. (q, watt).
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per
unit area normal to the direction of heat
transfer (q/area, watt / square meter) .
Power: The work done per unit time. (P
watt)

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 Heat conduction
Thermal Conduction through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.

Conduction: The transfer of energy from the

more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result
of interactions between the particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to q
the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of
vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and
the energy transport by free electrons.
Fouriers law of heat conduction: The rate of
heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference
across the layer and the heat transfer area,
but is inversely proportional to the thickness
of the layer.
Proportionality constant thermal conductivity
When x 0
k One dimensional heat flow

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Fouriers law of heat conduction

Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of

the ability of a material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope
of the temperature curve on a T-x
diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of
decreasing temperature, and the
temperature gradient becomes negative
when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the
In heat conduction analysis, A
equation ensures that heat transfer in
represents the area normal to
the positive x direction is a positive
the direction of heat transfer.
quantity.

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Properties of Thermal conductivity

The rate of heat conduction through a

solid is directly proportional to its
thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material is
a measure of the ability of the material
to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal conductivity
indicates that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value indicates that
the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.

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The range of thermal conductivity of various materials
at room temperature. Good heat conductors but poor
electrical conductors and used in
The thermal the electronics industry HX
conductivities of
gases such as air
vary by a factor of
104 from those of
pure metals

The thermal
conductivities
of liquids
usually lie
between
those of solid
and liquids

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Thermal conductivity vs Temperature

Kinetic theory (Gases):

Therefore, for a particular gas (fixed Mw), the

thermal conductivity increases with increasing
temperature and at a fixed temperature the thermal
conductivity decreases with increasing Mw.
The thermal conductivity of gases is Independent of
pressure in a wide range of pressures encountered
in practice
The thermal conductivity of liquids is generally
insensitive to pressure except near the
thermodynamic critical point
The thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease
with increasing temperature, with water being a
notable exception.
Thermal conductivity of liquids decreases with
increasing molar mass Mw
Thermal conductivity of pure metal generally
increases with temperature (Aluminium, Platinum
k = f(T). = ko(1+T)
are an exception)

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Wiedemann-Franz law
Thermal conductivity Vs Electrical conductivity

The Wiedemann-Franz law states that the ratio of

thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity
of a metal is proportional to its temperature.
k
LT

Where L the proportionality constant (also known
as the Lorenz number), is=2.45108 WK2
The law can be explained by the fact that free
electrons in the metal are involved in the
mechanisms in both heat and electrical transport.
The thermal conductivity increases with the
average electron velocity since this increases the
forward transport of energy. However, the
electrical conductivity decreases with an increase
in particle velocity because the collisions divert
the electrons from forward transport of charge

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Thermal Conductivity and Specific heat

Specific heat cp is a measure of a materials ability to store

thermal energy. For example, Cp = 4.18 kJ/kgC for water and
Cp = 0.45 kJ/kgC for iron at room temperature, which
indicates that water can store almost 10 times the energy that
iron can per unit mass.
Thermal conductivity k is a measure of a materials ability to
conduct heat.
For example, k = 0.607 W/mK for water and k = 80.2 W/mK
for iron at room temperature, which indicates that iron conducts
heat more than 100 times faster than water can.
Thus we say that water is a poor heat conductor relative to iron,
although water is an excellent medium to store thermal energy
Superconductors: The thermal conductivities of certain solids
exhibit dramatic increases at temperatures near absolute zero
The conductivity of copper reaches a maximum value of about
20,000 W/mK at 20 K, which is about 50 times the conductivity
at room temperature

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Thermal Diffusivity

cp Specific heat, J/kg C: Heat capacity per

unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m 3C: Heat capacity per
unit volume
Thermal diffusivity, m 2/s: Represents how
fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that
heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a
small amount of heat is conducted further.

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A simple experimental setup to determine the thermal
conductivity of a material.

A layer of sample material of known

thickness and area can be heated from
one side by an electric heater of known
heat transfer rate q (w).
If the outer surfaces of the heater are
well insulated, all the heat generated by
the resistance heater will be transferred
P=q through the material whose conductivity
is to be determined.
Then measuring the two surface
temperatures (T1 &T2) of the sample
P (w)= VI
material when steady heat transfer is
reached and substituting them into
Fourier's heat conduction equation
together with other known quantities
give the thermal conductivity

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Temperature Dependency of K Vs Numerical
Complexity

The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity causes considerable

complexity in conduction analysis. Therefore, it is common practice to evaluate the
thermal conductivity k at the average temperature and treat it as a constant in
calculations.
In heat transfer analysis, a material is normally assumed to be isotropic; that is, to
have uniform properties in all directions. This assumption is realistic for most
materials, except those that exhibit different structural characteristics in different
directions, such as laminated composite materials and wood. The thermal
conductivity of wood across the grain, for example, is different than that parallel to
the grain

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Convection Heat Transfer

Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by

Convection: The mode of energy
convection.
transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the
greater the convection heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk fluid
motion, heat transfer between a q
solid surface and the adjacent fluid
is by pure conduction.

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Nature of Thermal Convection

Forced convection: If the fluid is forced The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and
to flow over the surface by external natural convection.
means such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.
Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by buoyancy forces
that are induced by density differences
due to the variation of temperature in
the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve
change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of
the fluid motion induced during the
process, such as the rise of the vapor
bubbles during boiling or the fall of the
liquid droplets during condensation.

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Newtons Law of Cooling for Convective Heat
Transfer

Newtons Law of Cooling: Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by

Heat transfer rate convection.

h - convection heat transfer coefficient,

W/m2 C
As - the surface area through which
convection heat transfer takes place
Ts - the surface temperature
T - the temperature of the fluid q
sufficiently far from the surface

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Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

The convection heat transfer coefficient

h is not a property of the fluid.
It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all
the variables influencing convection
such as
the surface geometry
the nature of fluid motion
the properties of the fluid
the bulk fluid velocity

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Newtons Law of Cooling

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Thermal Radiation

Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require
the presence of an intervening medium.
In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit,
absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids.

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StefanBoltzmann Law of Thermal Radiation

Maximum thermal radiation from surface Emissivity : A measure of how closely a

by StefanBoltzmann Law ( Block surface approximates a blackbody for
Body) which = 1 of the surface. 0 1.

where is Stefan-Boltzmann constant

with the value of 5.669108 W/m2K4.
This Law is applies only to blackbodies.
Derived from Planks Law
It is important to note that this equation
is valid only for thermal radiation; other
types of electromagnetic radiation may
not be treated so simply.
Radiation emitted by real surfaces

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Radiation Basic Concepts
Absorptivity : The fraction of the
radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface. 0 1 emitted by the surface and the radiation
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation
incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoffs law: The emissivity and the
absorptivity of a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength are equal.
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Net radiation heat transfer: The
difference between the rates of radiation
absorbed.
The determination of the net rate of heat
transfer by radiation between two
surfaces is a complicated matter since it
depends on
the properties of the surfaces
their orientation relative to each
other
the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation
Radiation is usually significant relative to
conduction or natural convection, but
negligible relative to forced convection.
Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the
surfaces surrounding it

When a surface is completely enclosed If radiation and convection occur

by a much larger (or black) surface at simultaneously between a surface and a
temperature Tsurr separated by a gas Air as per Newtons Law of Cooling
(such as air) that does not intervene
with radiation, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between these two
surfaces is given by +

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Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Combination of conduction, convection & radiation

Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by

conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or radiation
on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a
still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is
either by conduction or convection, depending on the
presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
Most gases between two solid surfaces do not interfere with
radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation.

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PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
Mathematical modeling of physical problems

Step 1: Problem Statement

Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion

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Summary

The First Law of Thermodynamics Convection

Energy balance for closed systems
(Fixed Mass)
Energy balance for steady-flow
systems
Surface energy balance
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Conduction
Fouriers law of heat conduction
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Diffusivity
Newtons law of cooling
Radiation
StefanBoltzmann law
Simultaneous Heat Transfer
Mechanisms
Problem Solving Technique
Mathematical modeling of physical
problems

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Tutorial Problems
Problem 1

One face of a copper plate 3 cm thick is maintained at 400 C,

and the other face is maintained at 100 C. How much heat is
transferred through the plate?
Given data: The thermal conductivity for copper is 374 W/mC

at 400 C and 395 W/mC at 100 C .

Assumption: The thermal conductivity for copper varies linearly
with temperature from 100 to 400 C

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Solution: Problem 1

Given: Thickness = 0.03 m

T1 = 400 C; T2 = 100 C; K = 374 W/m C
To find: Heat Transfer rate per unit area 3cm

Solution:

Copper plate
400 C

From Fourier law of Heat Conduction, 100 C

q
q/A = Q = -K (dT/dX)
= - K (T2 T1) / (X2 X1)
= - 374 (100 - 400) / (0.03)
= 3.74 x 106 W/m2

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Tutorial Problems
Problem 2

Airat 20 C blows over a hot plate 50 by 75 cm

maintained at 250 C. The convection heat-transfer
coefficient is 25 W/m2 C. Calculate the heat transfer.
Assuming that the plate is made of carbon steel (1%)
2 cm thick and that 300 W is lost from the plate
surface by radiation, calculate the inside plate
temperature.
Given data kcarbon steel = 43 W/m C

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Solution: Problem 2

GIVEN: T = 20 C; Ts = 250 C; Area = (50 * 75 * 10-4) m2 ; h = 25 W/m2 C

Heat loss by Radiation = 300 W.
2 cm
TO FIND: Heat Transfer
SOLUTION:

steel
From Newtons law of cooling, ?? 20 C
qconv = h*A*(Ts - T)
= 25 * 50 * 75 * 10-4 * (250 20 ) 250 C
= 2156.25 W. q
qcond = qconv + qrad = 2156.25 + 300 = 2456.25 W.
From fourier law of heat conduction,
q = -k*A*(dT/dX)
dT = (q*dX)/(-k*A) = (2456.25* 0.02)/(-43*50*75*10 -4) = -3.04 C
T2 T1 = -3.04 C; 250 T1 = -3.04 C; T1 = 253.04 C.
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Tutorial Problems
Problem 3

An electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm in

diameter and 10 cm long. The wire is submerged in
liquid water at atmospheric pressure, and the current
is increased until the water boils. For this situation
h=5000 W/m2C, and the water temperature will be
100C. How much electric power must be supplied to
the wire to maintain the wire surface at 114C?

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Solution: Problem 3

Given: d = 0.001 m; L = 0.1 m; h = 5000 W/m 2 C; T =

100 C; Ts = 114 C

To find: q

Solution: From Newtons law of cooling,

q = h * A * (Ts - T)
= 5000 * ( 3.14 * 0.001 * 0.1) * (114 100)
= 21.98 W.
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Tutorial Problems
Problem 4

Two infinite black plates at 800 C and 300

C exchange heat by radiation. Calculate
the heat transfer per unit area.

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Solution: Problem 4

Solution :-
T1 = 800+273 = 1073K , T2 = 300+273 = 573 K ,
= 5.669 x 10-8 w/m2K4,
Black body , = 1
q = A ( T14- T24)
Q = q/A = (5.669 x 10-8 ) (1) (10734 5734)
= 69034.73 W/m2

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Tutorial Problems
Problem 5

A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 5 cm is

maintained at a temperature of 50 C in a large room
where the air and wall temperature are at 20 C. The
surface emissivity of the steel may be taken as 0.8.
Calculate the total heat lost by the pipe per unit
length.

Given Data: heat-transfer coefficient for free

convection with this geometry and air is h=6.5W/m2
C.
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Solution: Problem 5

Given: d = 0.05 m , Ts = 50 C , Tsurr = 20 C , = 0.8 ,

h=6.5W/m2 C.
Heat loss by convection
q conv = h A (Ts Tsurr)
(q/L)conv = (6.5) () (0.05) (50-20)
= 30.63 W/m
Pipe is surrounded by large enclosure , So heat also transfer by
radiation q rad = A (Ts4-Tsurr4)
(q/L)rad = (5.669 x 10-8 ) (0.8) (3234-2934)
= 25.04 w/m
Total heat Loss (q/L) T = (q/L)conv + ( q/L)rad
= 55.67 W/m
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