Stainless Steels

Stainless steels are iron base alloys that contain a

minimum of approximately 12% Cr, the amount
needed to prevent the formation of rust in
unpolluted atmosphere.
 Alloying elements of stainless
steel and their effect on
corrosion resistance
Other than Ni, Cr and C, the following alloying elements may
also present in stainless steel: Mo, N, Si, Mn, Cu, Ti, Nb, Ta
and/or W.

Main alloying elements (Cr, Ni and C):

1. Chromium
Minimum concentration of Cr in a stainless steel is 12-
14wt.%.
Structure : BCC (ferrite forming element)
* Note that the affinity of Cr to form Cr-carbides is very
high. Chromium carbide formation along grain
boundaries may induce intergranular corrosion.
2. Nickel
Structure: FCC (austenite forming element/stabilize
austenitic structure). Added to produce austenitic or
duplex stainless steels. These materials possess excellent
ductility, formability and toughness as well as
weldability.
Nickel improves mechanical properties of stainless steels
servicing at high temperatures.
Nickel increases aqueous corrosion resistance of
materials.
3. Carbon
Very strong austenite forming element (30x more effective
than Ni). The concentration of carbon is usually limited to
0.08%C (normal stainless steels) and 0.03%C (low
carbon stainless steels to avoid sensitization during
welding).
 :Minor alloying elements
Manganese
Austenitic forming element. When necessary can be used to
substitute Ni. Concentration of Mn in stainless steel is usually
2-3%.
Molybdenum
Ferritic forming element. Added to increase pitting corrosion
resistance of stainless steel (2-4%).
Molybdenum addition has to be followed by decreasing
chromium concentration and increasing nickel concentration
Improves mechanical properties of stainless steel at high
temperature. Increase aqueous corrosion resistance of material
exposed in reducing acid.
 Tungsten
Is added to increase the strength and toughness of
martensitic stainless steel.

Nitrogen (up to 0.25%)

Stabilize austenitic structure. Increases strength and
corrosion resistance. Increases weldability of duplex SS.

Titanium, Niobium and Tantalum

To stabilize stainless steel by reducing susceptibility of the
material to intergranular corrosion.
 Copper
Is added to increase corrosion resistance of stainless steel
exposed in environment containing sulfuric acid.

Silicon
Reduce susceptibility of SS to pitting and crevice corrosion
as well as SCC.
Influence of alloying elements on pitting
corrosion resistance of stainless steels
Influence of alloying elements on crevice
corrosion resistance of stainless steels
Influence of alloying elements on SCC
resistance of stainless steels
 Five basic types of stainless steels
Austenitic: Susceptible to SCC. Can be hardened only by cold
working. Good toughness and formability, easily to be welded and high
corrosion resistance. Nonmagnetic except after excess cold working
due to martensitic formation.

Martensitic: Application: when high mechanical strength and wear

resistance combined with some degree of corrosion resistance are
required. Typical application include steam turbine blades, valves body
and seats, bolts and screws, springs, knives, surgical instruments, and
chemical engineering equipment.

Ferritic: Higher resistance to SCC than austenitic SS. Tend to be notch

sensitive and are susceptible to embrittlement during welding. Not
recommended for service above 300 0C because they will loss their
room temperature ductility.
 Duplex (austenitic + ferritic): has enhanced resistance to SCC
with corrosion resistance performance similar to AISI 316 SS. Has
higher tensile strengths than the austenitic type, are slightly less
easy to form and have weld ability similar to the austenitic stainless
steel. Can be considered as combining many of the best features of
both the austenitic and ferritic types. Suffer a loss impact strength
if held for extended periods at high temperatures above 3000C.

Precipitation hardening: Have the highest strength but require

proper heat-treatment to develop the correct combination of
strength and corrosion resistance. To be used for specialized
application where high strength together with good corrosion
resistance is required.
 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steel
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is defined as crack nucleation
and propagation in stainless steel caused by synergistic action
of tensile stress, either constant or slightly changing with time,
together with crack tip chemical reactions or other
environment-induced crack tip effect.

SCC failure is a brittle failure at relatively low constant tensile

stress of an alloy exposed in a specific corrosive environment.

However the final fracture because of overload of remaining

load-bearing section is no longer SCC.
 Three conditions must be present simultaneously to
produce SCC:

- a critical environment
- a susceptible alloy
- some component of tensile stress
 Pure metals are more
resistance to SCC but and
Tensile stress is susceptibility increases with
below yield point strength

Susceptible
Tensile
material
stress

Stress
Corrosive corrosion
Corrosive environment
environment is cracking
often specific to the
alloy system
Typical micro cracks formed during SCC of
sensitized AISI 304 SS

Surface morphology
Example of crack propagation during transgranular
stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC) brass
 Example of crack
propagation during
intergranular stress
corrosion cracking
(IGSCC)
ASTM A245 carbon steel
 Fracture surface of
intergranular SCC on
carbon steel in hot nitric
solution

Fracture surface of
transgranular SCC on
austenitic stainless steel in hot
chloride solution
Fracture surface due to Fracture surface due to local
intergranular SCC stress has reached its tensile
strength value on the
remaining section
 Electrochemical effect
Usual region for TGSCC,
mostly is initiated by pitting
pitting corrosion
Zone 1 transgranular cracking(
propagation needs higher
)energy
cracking passive
zones

Zone 2
Usual region for IGSCC, SCC
active usually occurs where the
passive film is relatively weak
 Note that non-susceptible alloy-environment combinations,
will not crack the alloy even if held in one of the potential
zones.
Temperature and solution composition (including pH,
dissolved oxidizers, aggressive ions and inhibitors or
passivators) can modify the anodic polarization behavior to
permit SCC.
Susceptibility to SCC cannot be predicted solely from the
anodic polarization curve.