EARTH SCIENCE

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Christian D. Gonzales Mrs. Elle Bautista
Marjorie Q. Reforma
ROCKS
C om m on R ock-Form ing
M inerals
Since minerals are the building blocks of rocks, it is important
that you learn to identify the most common varieties. Minerals
can be distinguished using various physical and/or chemical
characteristics, but, since chemistry cannot be determined
readily in the field, geologists us thephysical propertiesof
minerals to identify them. These include features such as
crystalform,hardness(relative to a steel blade or you finger
nail),colour,lustre, andstreak(the colour when a mineral is
ground to a powder). More detailed explanations of these terms
and other aspects of mineral identification may be found in
field handbooks or textbooks. Generally the characteristics
listed above can only be determined if the mineral grains are
visible in a rock. Thus theidentification keydistinguishes
between rocks in which the grains are visible and those in
which the individual mineral components are too small to
identify.
The six com m onest
m inerals
The six minerals olivine, quartz, feldspar,
mica, pyroxene and amphibole are the
commonest rock-forming minerals and are
used as important tools in classifying rocks,
particularly igneous rocks. Except for
quartz, all the minerals listed are actually
mineral groups. However, instead of trying
to separate all the minerals which make up
a group, which is often not possible in the
field, they are dealt with here as a single
mineral with common characteristics.
Q uartz: Quartz is a glassy looking,
transparent or translucent
mineral which varies in colour
from white and grey to smoky.
When there are individual
crystals they are generally
clear, while in larger masses
quartz looks more milky white.
Quartz is hard - it can easily
scratch a steel knife blade. In
many rocks, quartz grains are
irregular in shape because
crystal faces are rare and
quartz does not have a
cleavage(ie, it does not break
on regular flat faces).
Feldspar Orthoclase

Feldspar:Feldspar is the other

common, light-colored rock-forming
mineral. Instead of being glassy like
quartz, it is generally dull to opaque
with a porcelain-like appearance.
Color varies from red, pink, and
white (orthoclase) to green, grey
and white (plagioclase). Feldspar
is also hard but can be scratched by
quartz. Feldspar in igneous rocks
forms well developed crystals which
are roughly rectangular in shape,
and they cleave or break along flat
faces. The grains, in contrast to
quartz, often have straight edges
and flat rectangular faces, some of
which meet at right angles.

Plagiocla
se
M ica Mica:Mica is easily
distinguished by its
characteristic of
peeling into many
thin flat smooth
sheets or flakes. This
is similar to the
cleavage in feldspar
except that in the
case of mica the
cleavage planes are
in only one direction
and no right angle
face joins occur. Mica
 Pyroxene:The most
P yroxene: common pyroxene
mineral isaugite.
Agate is generally dark
green to black in color
and forms short,
stubby crystals which,
if you look at an end-
on section, have
square or rectangular
cross-sections.
 Amphibole:The
A m phibole most common
amphibole
ishornblende.
Hornblende is quite
similar to augite in
that both are dark
minerals, however
hornblende crystals
are generally longer,
thinner and shinier
than augite and the
mineral cross-
sections are
diamond-shaped.
O livine Olivine:Olivine,
orperidotin the jewellery
trade, is yellow-green,
translucent and glassy
looking. Crystals are not
common; it usually occurs
as rounded grains in
igneous rocks or as
granular masses. Olivine
is almost as hard as
quartz; it does not have a
well-developed cleavage.
O ther com m on rock-form ing
m inerals
Calcite:Calcite is a very common mineral in sedimentary rocks. It is commonly
white to grey in colour. Individual crystals are generally clear and transparent.
Calcite is softer than quartz and can be scratched easily by a steel knife blade.
In a rock, calcite grains are often irregular to rhomb-like in shape. Calcite's
major distinguishing characteristic though is its vigorous reaction with dilute
hydrochloric acid.Dolomiteis very similar to calcite but does not react well
with acid unless powdered first.
Clays:Clay minerals are very fine grained and difficult to tell apart in the field.
They can vary in colour from white to grey, brown, red, dark green and black.
Clays are plastic and often sticky when wet; they feel smooth when smeared
between the fingers.
Magnetite:Magnetite is common in igneous and metamorphic rocks, and
some sediments, though usually in only small amounts (1 - 2 %). It is black in
colour with a metalliclustre, occurring in small octahedra (like two pyramids
stuck together). Easily recognized by its strongly magnetic character.
Pyrite:The commonest of the sulphide minerals, i.e. those minerals containing
sulphur as a principle component. It occurs in all rock types, though usually only
in small amounts. It is a pale brassy yellow in colour with a metallic lustre and
often forms cube-shaped crystals. Also known as "fool's gold".
 Talc occurs in
Talc: granular or foliated
masses sometimes
known assoapstone.
It is white to green,
sometimes grey or
brownish. It is very
soft and will be
scratched by a finger
nail. It has a greasy
feel
The types ofrock:igneous,
m etam orphic and sedim entary
Igneous; they form from the cooling of magma
deep inside the earth. They often have large
crystals (you can see then with the naked eye).
Metamorphic; they are formed through the
change (metamorphosis) of igneous and
sedimentary rocks. They can form both
underground and at the surface.
Sedimentary; they are formed through the
solidification of sediment. They can be based
off of organic remains (such as limestone), or
just form from the cementing of other rocks.
Igneous R ocks

Lava flow on Hawaii.

Lava is the extrusive
equivalent of magma.
Image via Wiki
Commons.
 The key element for igneous rocks is magma;
magmais a mixture of molten or semi-molten
rock, as well as some gases and other volatile
elements. The deeper you go underground, the
hotter it gets, and if you go deep enough, you
reach the mantle which can be though of as a
huge layer of magma surrounding the Earths core.
As you probably know, when magma cools, it turns
into rock; if it cools in the underground, at higher
temperatures (but still lower than that of the
magma), the cooling process will take slowly, and
crystals will have time to develop. Thats why you
see rocks such as granite with big crystals
because the magma had time to cool off. The
crystals are also differentiated, as you can see
below.
Note the white, almost rectangular
feldspar crystals, the grey virtually
shapeless quartz crystals, and the black
crystals, which can be either black mica
or amphibole. Image modified from
Eastern Illinois University.
Basalt note the almost
complete lack of visible
crystals. Now compare it to
the granite. Image via
Georgia State University
Pum ice.
Notallm agm a is m ade equalthough diff erentm agm as can have diff erent
chem icalcom positions,diff erentquantities ofgases and differenttem peratures;
differentm agm as -> diff erentrocks.Thats w hy you getthisincredible variety.There
are over700 hundred types ofigneous rocks,and they are generally the hardest
and heaviest(densest)ofallrocks.How ever,volcanic rocks can be incredibly
lightw eight pum ice forexam ple can even float,and w as called by ancientsailors
the foam ofthe sea.This happens w hen a volcano violently erupts,creating
pockets ofairin the rock.The m ostcom m on types ofigneous rocks are:
andesite
basalt
dacite
dolerite (also called diabase)
gabbro
diorite
peridotite
nepheline
obsidian
scoria
tuff
volcanic bom b
M etam orphic R ocks
Here, the name says it all these are
rocks that underwent a
metamorphosis; they changed. They
were either sedimentary or igneous
(or even metamorphic), and they
changed so much, that they are
fundamentally different from the
initial rock.
 Different types of metamorphism. Image via Tankon Yvtar.
There are two types of metamorphism (change) that can
cause this:
contact metamorphism(ortermic metamorphism);
the rocks are so close to magma that they start to
partially melt and change their properties. You can have
recrystallization, fusing between crystals and a lot of
chemical reactions. Temperature is the main driver here.
regional metamorphism(ordynamic
metamorphism); this typically happens when rocks are
deep underground and they are subjected to massive
pressure so much that they often become elongated and
the original features are destroyed. Pressure (often times
with temperature) is the main driver here.
 Different types of metamorphism. Image via Tankon Yvtar.
There are two types of metamorphism (change) that can
cause this:
contact metamorphism(ortermic metamorphism);
the rocks are so close to magma that they start to
partially melt and change their properties. You can have
recrystallization, fusing between crystals and a lot of
chemical reactions. Temperature is the main driver here.
regional metamorphism(ordynamic
metamorphism); this typically happens when rocks are
deep underground and they are subjected to massive
pressure so much that they often become elongated and
the original features are destroyed. Pressure (often times
with temperature) is the main driver here.
Folded foliation in a
m etam orphic rock from near
G eirangerfjord,N orw ay.Im age
via W ikiCom m ons.
 Metamorphic rocks can have crystals and
minerals both from the initial rocks, and new
minerals resulting from the metamorphosis
process. However, some minerals are clear
indicators of a metamorphic process. Among
these, the most usual ones are: garnet,
chlorite and kyanite.
Equally as significant are changes in chemical
environment that result in two metamorphic
processes: mechanical dislocation (the rock or
some minerals are physically altered) and
chemical recrystallization (when the
temperature and pressure changes, some
crystals arent stable, and they change into
other crystals).
M arble is a non-foliated m etam orphic rock.

They can be divided into many categories, but they are typically split into:
Foliated metamorphic rocks; where pressure squeezes or elongates the
crystals and they have a clear preferential allignment.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks; where the crystals have no
preferential allignment.Some rocks, such as limestone are made of
minerals that simply dont elongate, no matter how much stress you apply.
Metamorphic rocks can form in different conditions, in different
temperatures (up to 200C) and pressures (up to 1500 bars). Simply by
being buried deep enough for a long enough time, a rock will become
metamorphic. Theycan form from tectonic processes such as continental
collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion; they are
also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock
called magma from the Earths interior.
The most common metamorphic rocks are:
amphibolite
schist (blueschist, greenschist, micaschist, etc)
 A micaschist. The dark brown rounded minerals are
garnet, and everything you see with a whiteish tint is the
mica. The reddist areas are rusty mica. Image modified
from Willowleaf Minerals.
eclogite
gneiss
hornfels
marble
migmatite
phyllite
quartzite
serpentinite
slate
Sedim entary R ocks
Sedimentary rocks are
called that because they
were once
sediment.Sediment is a
naturally occurring
material that is broken
down by processes of
weathering and erosion,
and is subsequently
naturally transported (or
not). Sedimentary rocks
from through
depositionof material at
the Earths surface and
within bodies of water.
 A conglomerate a rock made from cemented gravel. Image
via Earth Physics Teaching.
Sedimentary rocks are quite difficult to classify, as you can
look at the situation from many different angles (the chemical
make-up, the sedimentation process, organic/anorganic
material), but the most common classification is the following:
clastic sedimentary rocks; basically small rock fragments
(many silicates) transported and deposited by fluids (water,
bed flows). These rocks are further classified on the size and
composition of the clastic crystals included in the sedimentary
rocks (most often quartz, feldspar, mica and clay).
conglomerates(and breccias); conglomerates are
dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are
composed of angular (sharper) gravel.
sandstones; as the name says it, its a rock made from
many-sand-sized minerals and rock grains. The most
dominant mineral in sandstones is quartz, because it is the
most common mineral in the Earths surface crust.
 An old, red sandstone. Image via
Ian Hopkinson.
mudrocks; again, the name says it
all rocks made from solidified
mud. They typically contain very
fine particles and are
transportedas suspended particles
by turbulent flow in water or air,
depositing once the flow
settlesbiochemical rocks; youll
probably be surprised to find out
that most limestone on the face of
the Earth comes from biological
sources. In other words, most
limestone you see today comes
from theskeletons of organisms
such as corals, mollusks, and
foraminifera. Coal is another
example of biochemical rock.
chemical rocks; these rocks
include gypsum and salt (halite)
formed mostly through water
evaporation
 Yes, salt is a mineral and it can
be quite beautiful. The rock is
called halite in this context and
its a sedimentary rock.
There are also other type of
specific sedimentary rocks, like
for example the ones formed in
hot springs.Most of the solid
surface of our planet (very
roughly 70%) is represented by
sedimentary rocks but if you
start to go deep enough, they
are replaced by igneous and
metamorphic.
As I mentioned with the
biochemical rocks, fossils can
become rocks in time. You can
actually have entire mountains
made up from reefs, like you can
see below.
 This entire mountain in Romania was formed based on a coral reef. Image via
MP Interactiv
Some common sedimentary rocks are:
argilite
breccia
chalk
chert
claystone
coal
conglomerate
dolomite
limestone
gypsum
greywacke
mudstone
shale
siltstone
turbidite
This is just scratching the surface when it comes to rocks you could spend a
life time studying them and still be surprised. But I hope that for your general
knowledge or if you want to impress some friends (or if youre considering
starting geology), the information here was useful and interesting to you. Feel
free to send any questions and comments my way and Ill do my best to
 COPPER
About 13 millions tons of copper are currently
used annually (1998). Copper is used for
electrical conductors, motors, appliances,
piping and in metal alloys.
GOLD
Gold has many high tech applications
including computers and many scientific
instruments, is used in electrical conductors,
is used in the face shields of fire fighters to
reflect the heat of a fire. is used in building
windows for reflecting the heat from the sun,
medical and dental equipment, and jewelry.
ZINC
ZnO is used to prevent Sunburn, zinc is used
for protective coatings for steel, casting alloys
 NICKEL
Nickel is primarily used to manufacture stainless
steel.
SILVER
Silver is used in electrical conductors,
photography, chemical manufacturing, dental
and medical uses.
ALUMINUM
Aluminum is used in electrical conductors, ships,
airplanes, doors, windows, roofing, insulation,
packaging, food processing, domestic utensils.
 IRON
Iron is used in steel manufacturing, magnets, medicines,
biomedical research, paints, printing inks, plastics, cosmetics,
dyes. Iron is used in volume, about 20 times more than any
other metal in our society.
BORAX
Borax is used to make fiberglass, high temperature glass,
cleaning agents, ceramics, wood preservitives, corrosion
inhibitors and fertilizers.
TITANIUM
Titanium is used in paint manufacture as pigments, and in
plastic manufacture, as well as many high strength, low weight
metal alloys.
TALC
Talc is used in paper manufacture, in paint manufacture and in
plastics and the cosmetic industry.
CLAY
Used to make cement and concrete, which is used to build
roads, buildings, housing foundations and even driveways.
 COAL
Used in steel making and to provide the LOWEST cost electricity in the
world (except for hydro generated). Coalcosts 1/2 of oil fired power plants
(pound of fuel per million BTU produced) Slag (the residue left when coal is
burned) from coal power plants is used for paving additives, for abrasives
in sandblasting and to manufacture roofing materials.Go To Top of Page
PHOSPHATE
Phosphate is used to produce phosphoric acid for fertilizers, feed additives
for livestock, chemicals, and used in consumer home products
POTASH
Carbonate of potassium, is used in fertilizers, medicines and the chemical
industry.
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
Planthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, Europium, etc., are
used in petroleum refining, computers, televisions, magnetic industry,
metallurgical applications, ceramics and lighting.
 Extracting Surface Minerals
Surface miningis just what it sounds like - removing minerals that are near
the earth's surface because this is where the ore deposits are located. When
the ore deposits are very large,open-pit miningis utilized. A large, open pit
is created as machines scrape off any earth that is not ore and set it to the
side. This material is calledoverburden, and as the overburden is scraped
off, it's piled intospoil banks.
After the overburden is cleared from the ore, explosives are used to break up
the ore material that is being removed from the ground, which is then taken
away to be refined. The size of the ore bed increases as mining continues,
and eventually, the pit becomes a very large bowl-shaped hole in the earth's
surface. When the ore is found in a wide area but it's not very deep in the
ground, strip mining is used.
Instrip mining, instead of creating one large pit in the ground, long narrow
strips are dug out. The overburden is removed and piled up along the strip.
Once the ore is removed, the overburden is dumped back into the strip. While
this may sound like a good method because the holes are re-filled instead of
left open, the land actually looks more like a washboard after strip mining
because of all of the re-piled soil.
 Extracting Minerals Deep Underground
Some minerals are found very deep below Earth's surface -
sometimes hundreds or thousands of feet deep! To remove these
minerals from the ground,subsurface miningis used. In
subsurface mining, a long tunnel is created either horizontally or
vertically. The tunnel walls are reinforced with wood and ventilation
shafts are created to provide air to the miners underground. The
minerals themselves are removed a number of different ways.
One way is to blast apart the material and then send the ore pieces
up to the surface in carts. Another method islongwall mining,
which is when coal is sheared from the wall and collected on a
conveyor belt, much like a potato peeler shears away layers of a
potato. This is a very efficient way of extracting coal from an
underground mine. Another method issolution mining, which is
when hot water is injected into the ore to dissolve it. Once the ore is
dissolved, air is pumped into it, and it's bubbled up to the surface.
 The Harmful Effects of Mining
While mining provides us with the minerals we
need, it is also very destructive because it
disrupts the landscape both on the surface and
underground. It also causes quite a bit of
pollution and can harm or kill mine workers.
Surface mining is destructive to landscapes
because it can cause changes in the
topography and drainage and strips the land of
vegetation, soil and rocks. The spoil banks of
surface mining erode and weather away, and
rainfall leaches toxic chemicals into the earth.
 In some cases, entire mountaintops have been
removed for surface mining!
Subsurface mining is actually less disruptive to the
earth and produces less waste than surface
mining, but it's also much less effective and more
dangerous. Many workers die in mine collapses,
which then also leaves behind a large hole from
caving in of the ground above. Water may leak
into the mine and dissolve toxic chemicals that
may leak into aquifers and drinking water supplies.
Explosions in old mining tunnels may also occur
because the natural gas underground ignites very
easily.