Electricity

Movement of electrons
Invisible force that provides
light, heat, sound, motion . . .
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Elements - The simplest form of matter

Atoms - Smallest piece of an element containing all of

the properties of that element
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Components of an Atom
Nucleus
The center portion of
an atom containing the
protons and neutrons
Protons
Positively charged
atomic particles
Neutrons
Uncharged atomic
particles
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Atomic Number
The atomic number is
equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus
of an atom.

The atomic number

identifies the element.

How many
protons are in
this nucleus?
Electricity at the Atomic Level

Electrons
Negatively charged
particles
Electron Orbitals
Orbits in which
electrons move around 2D
3D
the nucleus of an atom
Valence Electrons
The outermost ring of
electrons in an atom
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Electron Orbits
Orbit Maximum
Number Electrons
1 2
2
2 8
3 18
4 32
5 50
6 72
Valence 8
Orbit

Orbits closest to the nucleus fill first

Electricity at the Atomic Level
Electron Orbits
Atoms like to have their valence ring either
filled (8) or empty(0) of electrons.
Copper
Copper How many electrons are
Cu in the valence orbit? 1
29
Is copper a conductor
or insulator? Conductor

Why?
Valence Electrons and Conductivity in Solids

Good Conductors:

1 valence electron
3 valence electrons
29 protons and electrons
13 protons and electrons
34 neutrons
14 neutrons
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Electron Orbits

Sulfur
Sulfur

S
16

How many electrons are in the valence orbit?

6
Is Sulfur a conductor or insulator?
Insulator
Why?
Cont (Valence Electrons and Conductivity..)

Semiconductor Insulator
15: Phosphorus 2,8,5

4 valence electrons 5 valence electrons

32 protons and electrons 15 protons and electrons
41 neutrons 16 neutrons
Cont (Valence Electrons and Conductivity..)
The energy gap for an insulator is so wide that hardly any electrons
acquire enough energy to jump into conduction band. The valence
band and the conduction band in a conductor ( such as copper)
overlap so that there are always many conduction electrons even
without application of external energy. A semiconductor has an
energy gap that is much narrower that in an insulator.
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Electron Flow
An electron from one orbit can knock out an
electron from another orbit.

When an atom loses an

electron, it seeks another
to fill the vacancy.

Copper
Copper

Cu
29
Electricity at the Atomic Level
Electron Flow
Electricity is created as electrons collide and
transfer from atom to atom.

Play Animation
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors Insulators

Electrons flow easily Electron flow is difficult

between atoms between atoms

1-3 valence electrons in 5-8 valence electrons in

outer orbit outer orbit

Examples: Silver, Examples: Mica, Glass,

Copper, Gold, Aluminum Quartz
Conductors and Insulators
Identify conductors and insulators

Conductors Insulators
Electrical Quantities

Here are some important electrical quantities for this course:

Electrical Circuit
A system of conductors and components
forming a complete path for current to
travel

Properties of an electrical circuit include

Voltage Volts V
Current Amps A
Resistance Ohms
Current
The flow of electric charge
- measured in AMPERES (A)

Tank (Battery) Faucet (Switch)

Pipe (Wiring)

When the faucet (switch) is off,

is there any flow (current)?
NO
When the faucet (switch) is on,
is there any flow (current)?
YES
Current in a Circuit

off on

When the switch is off, there is no current.

When the switch is on, there is current.
Current Flow
Conventional Current assumes
that current flows out of the positive
side of the battery, through the
Conventional
circuit, and back to the negative Current
side of the battery. This was the
convention established when
electricity was first discovered, but
it is incorrect!
Electron Flow is what actually
happens. The electrons flow out of Electron
the negative side of the battery, Flow

through the circuit, and back to the

positive side of the battery.
Engineering vs. Science
The direction that the current flows does not affect what the
current is doing; thus, it doesnt make any difference which
convention is used as long as you are consistent.
Both Conventional Current and Electron Flow are used. In
general, the science disciplines use Electron Flow, whereas
the engineering disciplines use Conventional Current.
Since this is an engineering course, we will use Conventional
Current .

Electron Conventional
Flow Current
Voltage
The force (pressure) that causes
current to flow
- measured in VOLTS (V)

Tank (Battery) Faucet (Switch)

Pipe (Wiring)

When the faucet (switch) is off, is there any pressure (voltage)?

YES Pressure (voltage) is pushing against the pipe, tank, and
the faucet.
When the faucet (switch) is on, is there any pressure (voltage)?
YES Pressure (voltage) pushes flow (current) through the
system.
Voltage in a Circuit

off on

The battery provides voltage that will push

current through the bulb when the switch is on.
Resistance
The opposition of current flow
- measured in Ohms ()

Tank (Battery) Faucet (Switch)

Pipe (Wiring)

What happens to the flow (current) if a rock

gets lodged in the pipe?
Flow (current) decreases.
Resistance in a Circuit

Resistor

off on

Resistors are components that create resistance.

Reducing current causes the bulb to become
more dim.
Electric Charge and Electric Current
Electric Current - is the time rate of flow of electrical charge through a
conductor or circuit element. The units are amperes (A), which is equivalent to
coulombs per second (C/s). The charge on an electrons is 1.602x 10^-19 C.

A constant current of one ampere means that one coulomb of charge passes
through the cross section each second.

To find charge given current, we must integrate:

in which to is some initial time at which the charge is known.

Kinds of Current
There are two general types of electric current:
(1) Direct Current is one in which energy transfer takes place
unidirectionally.
() Unidirectional when the current does vary somewhat in
magnitude but does not reverse in direction.
() Pulsating is one in which the magnitude varies
considerably and pulsates regularly, there being no reversal in
direction.

(2) Alternating Current is one in which the direction alternates

regularly and changes periodically in magnitude as well as
direction.
() Oscillating Current increases and decreases in magnitude
and changes in direction periodically with respect to time.
Voltages
Voltage - is the energy transferred per unit charge that flows through the
element.

where : v = voltage in volts

w = energy in joules
q = the charge in coulombs

Voltages are assigned that indicate the direction of energy flow.

(a) If the positive charge moves from the positive polarity through the
element toward the negative polarity, the element absorbs energy. (heat,
mechanical energy, etc.)

(b) If the positive charge moves from the negative polarity toward the positive
polarity, the element supplies energy.
Resistance

The current through the material depends not only upon the voltage
impressed but also on the properties of the materials. This property
tends to oppose the flow of the electricity.

Conductance
Conductivity varies with different materials posses a reciprocal
property of the material. A property that allows the current to flow.

Where : G = conductance
R = resistance
L = length
A= cross sectional area
= specific resistance
Flow of Electrons
Conventional Flow

Source Load

The current is taken the positive (+) terminal of the source through
the load that goes back to the negative terminal of the source.
Cont ( Flow of Electrons )
Electron Flow

Source Load

The current flow is taken from the negative terminal of the source
that goes back to the positive terminal of the source.
Work, Power and Energy
Power - is the rate of doing electrical work.

At any instant:

, joules

and,

, watt-sec
Cont (Work, Power and Energy)

Energy - ability of doing electrical work. It is the product of power

obtained and time.

Kinds of Energy
Potential Energy by virtue of position.

where: m = mass of body, kg

g = gravitational force, 9.807 m/sec^2
H = height from point the object is drop to the ground.
Cont (Kinds of Energy)
Kinetic Energy - by virtue of motion.

where: m = moving mass, kg

v = velocity, m/sec

Rest Energy by virtue of moving mass affecting the rest mass and
the speed of light.

where: m = rest mass

c = speed of light, 3 x10 ^ 8 m/sec
Electric and Heat Energy
Energy transformation is very commonly attached in power plants in
2 ways: Hydro power station like Angat Hydroelectric Power Station
have hydro turbine- generator set that converts the PE of stored
water in electrical energy.

Thermal plants, convert heat energy derived from coal, oil or nuclear
fuel to electrical energy by using steam turbine-generator sets.
Useful Energy Power Conversion Units
1 joule = 1 watt-sec
1 joule = 1 x 10^7 ergs
1 erg = 1 dyne cm

In Electric Circuit,

; watts-sec
Cont ( Useful Energy Power Conversion Units)

In heating units like,

- Toaster, flat iron
- electric furnaces

Note: 1 watt sec = 0.239 cal/sec

Q = 0.239 Pt, calories of heat

Formula : , cal
where : m = mass of liquid (water)
c = specific heat of water
= 1 calorie/gm- C
= 1 BTU/lb- F
1 kcal = 4,186 joules
, , change in temp, C
Resistivity

Stated that the resistance of conducting material varies directly with

the length and inversely with its cross-sectional area depending
upon the material is made of.

where: R = resistance in ohms L= length (meter)

A = cross-sectional area (sq.m) V = volume (cu.m)
= resistivity (ohm-meter)
Cont (Resistivity)
For rectangular conductor:

For cylindrical conductor:

d
Cont (Resistivity)
Circular MILS, CM small diameters of electrical conductors are
conveniently expressed in MILS.

where: 1 inch = 1000 mils

1000 mils = 2.54 cm.

It is desirable to use circular units (CM) as a unit for circular areas

than square units (to denote the cross-sectional area)

Remembering that area varies directly with the diameter squared (d),
it should be clear that the area in circular mils is determined merely by
squaring the diameter d, where the latter is expressed in mils.

1 CM = d

where: d = expressed in mils, since mil is a circular

unit
Cont (Resistivity)
Be guided with the correct combination of units for resistivity.

Resistivity () Length ( L) Area ( A) Volume (V)

-m m sq. m cu. m
-cm cm sq.cm cu.cm
-CM/ft ft CM -

Resistivity of Some Common Materials

Material Resistivity ()
-m - CM/ft
Aluminum 2.83 x 10^-8 17.02
Copper 1.724 x 10^-8 10.371
Gold 2.44 x 10^-8 14.676
Iron 98 x 10^-8 589.4
Silver 1.629 x 10^-8 9.805
Cont (Resistivity)
Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor are:

1) Length, (L)
2) Type of materials, ()
3) Diameter or cross sectional area (A or d)
4) Temperature ( C)
Volume Resistivity

In transmission lines and related wire problems, wire are

strengthened and areas are reduced. The effect in decreasing area
and increasing length with constant volume on resistance is
analyzed below:

d1 d2

L1
L2

Hence, V1 = V2
A1L1 = A2L2 -----> 1
Cont (Volume Resistivity)
Also, 1 = 2 ----> 2
For the new resistance:
since, --- > 3

From 1:

and

----- > 4
Cont (Volume Resistivity)

At any given length and diameter.

Also, in terms of diameter.

when: 1 = 2
Illustrative Problems

IP1: Using the given particulars calculate the resistances of the

following conductors at 20C. (a) material = copper, length = 1,000
ft. A = 3,220 cir. Mils (b) material =aluminum, length= 4 miles,
diameter = 162 mils (c) material = gold, length = 486 in., diameter =
0.0159 in.

IP2 : The substation bus bar is made up of 2-inches round copper bars
20 ft. long. What is the resistance of each bar if resistivity is 1.724
x10 ^-8 ohm-cm?

IP3 : Determine the resistance of the conductor 0.10 m long, with a

uniform diameter of 1.0 cm and having a resistivity which varies as a
function of length L measured from one end of the conductor
according to the formula : = 0.003 + 10^-4 L^2 ohm-cm.
Cont (Illustrative Problems)
IP4 : A copper wire of unknown length has a resistance of 0.80 ohm. By
successive passes through drawing dies, the length of the wire is
increased to 2 times the original value. Assuming that the
resistivity remains unchanged during the drawing process,
determine the new value of its resistance.

IP5 : A kilometer of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and a

resistance of 0.031 ohm is drawn down so that its diameter is
5.0mm. What does its resistance become?