CH2006 - HEAT TRANSFER

Why to study of heat Transfer?

Almost all industrial processes are involved with heating or cooling, which
requires heat transfer
A chemical engineer with sound knowledge and understanding in principles,
mechanisms and applications of heat transfer finds him better placed in a
chemical process industry.
Chemical engineers work in four main divisions of the chemical process
industries such as development, design, manufacturing (production) and
sales.
For example: (1) Chemical reactions are usually endothermic or exothermic
and thus to maintain temperatures at the desired levels (in the reactors), it is
required either to supply heat or remove heat from the reaction zone. (2) In
distillation, we have to supply heat to the reboilers to vapourise liquid
mixtures (using steam as a heating media) and remove heat in the overhead
condensers ( using chilled water or cooling towers water as a cooling
medium).
Therefore, heat transfer has become an part of the chemical engineering
curricula.
 Difference between heat and temperature

In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms

heat and temperature
Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by
the molecules of a substance and can be used to predict the
direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T. The
scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the degree Celsius
and Kelvin temperature scales.
Heat, on the other hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat
flows from a hotter body to a colder one. The usual symbol for heat
is Q. In the SI system, common units for measuring heat are the
Joule and calorie.
 Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer
Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers as
well as variation of temperature.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the
lower-temperature one.
Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
Thermodynamics tells us:
how much heat is transferred (dQ)
how much work is done (dW)
final state of the system
Heat transfer tells us:
how (with what modes) dQ is transferred
at what rate dQ is transferred
temperature distribution inside the body
 Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction , Convection , radiation

Conduction: An energy transfer across a system

boundary due to a temperature difference by the
mechanism of intermolecular interactions.
Conduction needs matter and does not require any
bulk motion of fluid.
Conduction rate equation is described by the
Fourier Law:
Fouriers law of heat conduction
Fouriers law states that the rate of heat flow
through a uniform material is directly
proportional to the area of heat transfer,
temperature gradient in the direction of heat
flow, and inversely proportional to the length
of the path of flow. The law is applicable at Heat conduction through a
any location and at any time. large plane wall of thickness
x and area A.
 dT
dQ A[ ]
dx
dT
dQ kA[ ] In heat conduction analysis,
dx
A represents the area
dT normal to the direction of
dQ kA heat transfer.
dx
The negative sign indicates is due to the fact that with an increase in
x , there is a decrease in T, i.e temperature decrease in the direction of
the heat flow, so that dT/dx must be negative (for the heat flow to be
postive)
if the temperature gradient dT/dx does not vary with time then the
rate of heat flow is constant with time, and the above equation dQ may
be replaced by Q. the equation for a steady state one dimensional heat
flow may be written as
dT
dQ = constant = Q kA
dx
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat passing
through a quantity of material of unit thickness with unit
heat flow area in unit time, when unit temperature
difference is maintained across the opposite faces of the
material. dT
dQ kA[ ]
dx
dQ dx
k
A dT

Thermal conductivity depends upon the nature of a

material and its temperature. Thermal conductivities of
solids are higher than that of liquids and liquids are
having higher thermal conductivities than for gases.
The rate of heat conduction through a
solid is directly proportional to its
thermal conductivity.
Thermal Conductivity k
Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness
of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the
material to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a
good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a
poor heat conductor or insulator.

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature.

 Convection: An energy transfer across a system
boundary due to a temperature difference by the
combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and
bulk transport of fluid. Convection needs fluid matter.

It states that the heat flux from a solid

surface to a fluid is proportional to the
temperature difference between the
surface and the fluid.
 Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the
transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that
arises due to the temperature of the body.
Radiation does not need matter.
Steafan-Boltzmann Law:
This is most commonly used law of thermal
radiation. It states that the thermal radiation heat
flux emitted from a black surface is proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of
the surface.

Q / A T 4
 One Dimensional Steady State Conduction:

Steady State heat conduction is a simpler case in the sense that the
temperature does not vary with time.
Temperature is independent of time and is a function of position in
the conducting solid.
To understand the phenomena of heat conduction, the one
dimensional case is considered first.
This implies that temperature gradient exists only in one direction
which make the heat flow unidirectional.
The case of heat flow through a slab (plane wall), circular cylinder,
sphere and long fins can be analyzed by one dimensional steady
state conduction.
Steady state heat conduction through a plane wall
(single layer)
The heat flow through the wall of a stirred tank containing a hot or
cold fluid or the wall of a large furnace can be examples of one
dimensional heat flow.
Consider a plane / flat wall as shown in figure.
Consider that the wall is made of a material of
thermal conductivity k and is of uniform
thickness (x) and constant cross sectional area
(A).
Assume that k is independent of the
temperature and the area of wall is very large in
comparison with the thickness so that the heat
losses from the edges are negligible.
A hot face is at temperature T and a cold
1

face is at a temperature T and both are Heat conduction through a

2

isothermal surfaces. large plane wall of thickness

x and area A.
 The direction of heat flow is perpendicular to the wall and
temperature (T) varies in the direction of x-axis.
As in steady state Q is constant along the path of heat flow. The
ordinary use of Fourier's law requires that the differential equation
dT
Q cond ,wall kA
dx
The above equation be integrated over the entire path from x = 0 to
x = x (total thickness of wall) as we normally known temperatures
only at the faces.
x T2
x0 Qcond ,wall dx T T kAdT 1

T1 T2
Q cond , wall kA (W)
x
T1 T2
Q cond ,wall (W)
Rwall
 T
Q cond ,wall (W)
Rwall
where

T T1 T2 (0C)
x (0C / W)
Rwall
kA
Rwall ( x/kA) is the thermal resistance of wall material of
thickness x, (0C / W)
Q is the rate of heat flow (W)
T is the driving force. (0C)
Compound resistances in series / conduction through a composite
plane wall / steady state conduction through walls (multi layers)
When a wall is formed out of a series of layers of different materials,
it is called as a composite wall.
Consider a flat wall constructed of a series of layers of three different
materials (i.e consider a composite wall / multilayered wall) as shown
in figure.
Let k1, k2, and k3, be the thermal conductivities of the materials of
which layers are made. Let thickness of the layers be X1, X2 and X3
respectively.
Let T1 be the temperature drop across the first layer, T 2 that across
the second and T3 that across / over the third layer. Let T be the
temperature drop across the entire composite wall.
Let T1 ,T ,T and T2 be the temperature at the face as shown in figure.
T1 is the temperature of the hot face and T2 is the temperature of cold
face.
Assume further that the layers are in excellent thermal contact.
Furthermore, let the area of the compound wall or composite wall, at
right angles to the plane of illustration be A.
 The overall temperature drop is related to the individual temperature drops over the layers
by
T = T1 + T2 + T3
It is desired to derive an equation / formula giving the rate of heat flow through a series of
resistances.
Rate of heat flow through the layer 1, i.e through the material of thermal conductivity k 1 is
given by

k1 A
Q1 (T1 T ' )
x1
Q1
(T1 T ' )
(k1 A / x1 )

T1 (T1 T ' )

Q1
T1
( k1 A / x1 ) ..(1)
 Similarly for layer 2
Q2
T2 ..(2)
(k2 A / x2 )

and for layer 3

Q2
T3 ..(3)
( k3 A / x3 )

Adding equations (1), (2) and (3), we get

Q1 Q2 Q3
T1 T2 T3 T
( k1 A / x1 ) ( k2 A / x2 ) ( k3 A / x3 )
Under steady state conditions of heat flow, all the heat passing through
the layer 1 (first resistance) must pass through the layer 2 (second
resistance) and in turn pass through the layer 3 (third resistance),
therefore Q1, Q2 and Q3 must be equal and can be denoted by Q. then
the equation (4) becomes
Q Q Q
T
(k1 A / x1 ) ( k2 A / x2 ) (k3 A / x3 )

1 1 1
Q[ ] T
(k1 A / x1 ) ( k2 A / x2 ) (k3 A / x3 )

T
Q
1 1 1
[ ]
( k1 A / x1 ) ( k2 A / x2 ) ( k3 A / x3 )

T ..(4)
Q
x x2 x3
[ 1 ]
( k1 A) (k2 A) ( k3 A)
Let R1, R2 and R3 be the thermal resistance offered by the layers- 1,2
and 3 respectively. R1, R2 and R3 are given as

x1
R1
( k1 A)

x2
R2
( k2 A)

x3
R3
(k3 A)

And the equation no.4 becomes

T
Q
[ R1 R2 R3 ]

If R is the overall resistance, then for resistance in series, we have

 R R1 R2 R3
Then equation no.6 becomes
T (5)
Q
R
The above equation is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer as
the ratio of overall temperature drop (driving force) to the overall
resistance of the composite wall.
The above equation no.5 is written in the form

Driving Force
Rate
Resistance

One can calculate the temperature at the interfaces of layers of

which wall is made by making use of this given below equation

T T T T
1 2 3
R R1 R2 R3
 Heat flow through a cylinder:
Consider a thick walled hollow cylinder of inside radius r 1,
outside radius r2 and length L as shown in figure.
Assume that the thermal conductivity of the material of
which cylinder to be made be k.
Consider that the cylinder to be long so that the end
losses are negligible. Let the temperature of the inside
surface be T1 and the outside surface be T2 Figure:
Heat
Assume that T1 > T2 , therefore the heat flows from the
flow
inside of cylinder to outside. It is desired to calculate the rate through
of heat flow for this case. a thick
Consider a cylindrical element, concentric with the main of
walled
radius r , where r is between r1 and r2. The thickness of wall cylinder
of this cylindrical element is dr.
The rate of heat flow at any radius r is given by

dT (1)
Q k (2 rL)( )
dr
Rearranging the equation (1), we get

dr 2 kL
( )dT
r Q
Integrate the above equation between the limits, only
variables are r and T (assuming k to be constant )
When r = r1 , T = T1
When r = r2 , T = T2
T
r2 dr 2 kL 2
r1 r
(
Q T
) dT
1

2 kL
lnr2 lnr1 ( )[T2 T1 ]
Q

2 kL
ln(r2 / r1 ) [T1 T2 ]
Q
 2 kL
Q [T1 T2 ]
ln(r2 / r1 )
The above equation can used to calculate the rate of transfer
through a thick walled cylinder.
It can be put into more convenient form by expressing the rate of
heat transfer as
k (2 rm L)
Q [T1 T2 ] ...(2)
(r2 r1 )
Where rm is the logarithmic mean radius,[it is radius which when
applied to the integrated equation for a flat wall, will give the
correct rate of heat flow through a thick walled cylinder.]
(r r )
rm 2 1
ln(r2 / r1 )
Am 2 rm L
Where Am is the logarithmic mean area. [The surface area (A) for
transferring heat through the pipe (neglecting the pipe ends) is
directly proportional to the radius (r) of the pipe and the length (L)
of the pipe.]
[Hint: As the radius increases from the inner wall to the outer wall, the heat
transfer area increases. The development of an equation evaluating heat
transfer through an object with cylindrical geometry begins with Fouriers law
Equation
Hint: From the discussion above, it is seen that no simple expression for area is
accurate. Neither the area of the inner surface nor the area of the outer surface
alone can be used in the equation. For a problem involving cylindrical geometry,
it is necessary to define a log mean cross-sectional area (Am).]

kAm [T1 T2 ]
Q
(r2 r1 )

[T1 T2 ] Am 2 rm L
Q
(r2 r1 ) / kAm

T
Q
R
Where
(r2 r1 ) (A 2 A1 ) (r2 r1 )
R Am rm
kAm ln(A 2 / A1 ) ln(r2 / r1 )
 Heat flow through a sphere
Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and outside radius r2. Let
T1 be the temperature at the inner surface and T2 be the
temperature at the outer surface. Assume that T1 > T2 , so that heat
will flow from inside to outside.
Consider a spherical element at any radius r ( between r 1 and r2 ) of
thickness dr.

dT
Q k (4 r 2 )( )
dr
Where

k = thermal conductivity of a material of which

sphere is made
dr 4 k
2
(dT)
r Q
Integrate the above equation between the limits, only
variables are r and T (assuming k to be constant )
When r = r1 , T = T1
And r = r2 , T = T2

T2
r2 dr 4 k
r
1 r2
(
Q T
) dT
1

1 4 k
[ ]rr2 ( )[T2 T1 ]
r 1 Q

1 1 4 k
[ ]( )[T1 T2 ]
r1 r2 Q

Rearranging, we get
4 k (T1 T2 )
Q
1 1
[ ]
r1 r2
 4 r1r2 k (T1 T2 )
Q
[r2 r1 ]

rm r1r2 = mean radius which is geometric mean for sphere

4 rm2 k (T1 T2 )
Q
[r2 r1 ]
 LOGARITHMIC MEAN RADIUS AND ARITHMETIC MEAN RADIUS

Logarithmic mean radius is the radius that when applied to the

integrated equation for a flat wall, will give the correct rate of heat
flow through a thick walled cylinder. It is given by the expression

(r2 r1 )
rm
ln(r2 / r1 )

Arithmetic mean radius is used for thin walled cylinder.

(r2 r1 )
rA
2
 Unsteady state or Transient heat conduction

The temperature of a body, in general, varies with time as

well as position. In rectangular coordinates, this variation is
expressed as T(x, y, z, t), where (x, y, z) indicates variation
in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and t indicates
variation with time.
we consider the variation of temperature with time as well
as position for one-dimensional heat conduction problems
such as those associated with a large plane wall, a long
cylinder, a sphere.
the analysis of lumped systems in which the temperature
of a solid varies with time but remains uniform throughout
the solid at any time.
 Unsteady state or Transient heat conduction
Consider the one dimensional system as shown in figure 1-2. if the
system is in a steady state, i.e., if the temperature does not change
with time, then the problem is a simple one, and we need only
integrate the Fourier law equation and substitute the appropriate
values to solve for the desired quantity.
However, if the temperature of the solid is changing with time, or if
there are heat sources or sinks within the solid, the situation is more
complex.
We consider the general case where the temperature may be
changing with time and heat sources may be present within the
body.
 For the element of thickness dx the following energy balance may
be made:
Energy conducted in left face + heat generated within element =
Change in internal energy + energy conducted out right face

These energy quantities are given as follows:

T
Energy in left face = Q x kA
x

Energy generated within element = Q x Adx

T
Change in internal energy = cA dx
t

T
Q
Energy out left face = x dx kA
x x dx
T T
A k k dx
x x x
 Where

Q = energy generated per unit volume, W/m3
c = specific heat of material, J/kg
kg/m C
= density, 3

Combining the relations above gives

T T T T
kA Q Adx cA dx A k k dx
x dt x x x

or

T
2
Q 1 T
T T
k Q c or 2 k dt
x x dt x

This is the one dimensional heat conduction equation. To treat more

than one dimensional heat flow, we need consider only the heat
conducted in and out of a unit volume in all three coordinates directions,
as shown in fig. 1-3a.
The energy balance yields
dE
Q x Q y Q z Q gen Q x dx Q y dy Q z dz (1)
dt

and the energy quantities are given by

T
Q x kdydz
x
T T
Qx dx k k dx dydz
x x x

T
Q y kdxdz
y
T T
Q y dy k k dy dxdz
y y y
T
Q z kdxdy
z
 T T
Qz dz k k dz dxdy
z z z

Qgen Q dxdydz
dE T
cdxdydz
dt t

dE (2)
Qx Qy Qz Qgen Qx dx Qy dy Qz dz
dt
Substitute all the energy quantities in equation (2), and simplify the equation

T T T T
k k k Q c
x x y y z z dt
For constant thermal conductivity equation (3), and then divided by k, we get

T
2 2
T 2 T Q 1 T
2

x y 2
z2 k dt

Where the quantity k c is called the thermal diffusivity of the material.

 Thermal resistance of an infinite composite slab:
Consider a composite wall / slab (see fig. 2.18) made up of three
different materials of thickness X1, X2 and X3 respectively and having
thermal conductivities k1, k2, and k3 respectively. Let, h1 and h2 be the
heat transfer coefficients on the two faces / sides, and T1 and T2 be the
temperature of the fluids on the two sides (with T1 > T2 ). Let Tw1 , Tw2 ,
Tw3 and Tw4 be the interface temperature.

Newtons law of heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid is

analogous to Fouriers law for heat conduction. It states that when a fluid
at a temperature T is in contact with a solid surface at a different
temperature Tw , the heat flux from the surface to the fluid is proportional
to the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid.

Q / A h(Tw T )
Where h is the film heat transfer coefficient. we can write the
following set of heat flux equations :

Q / A h1 (T1 Tw1 )

k1
Q/ A (Tw1 Tw2 )
x1
k2
Q/ A (Tw2 Tw3 )
x2
k3
Q/ A (Tw3 Tw4 )
x3

Q / A h2 (Tw4 T2 )

Q
(T1 Tw1 )
Ah1
Q x1
(Tw1 Tw2 )
k1 A
 Q x2
(Tw2 Tw3 )
k2 A

Q x3
(Tw3 Tw4 )
k3 A

Q
(Tw4 T2 )
Ah2

Adding, we get

Q 1 x1 x2 x3 1
T1 T2 [ ]
A h1 k1 k2 k3 h2

Q T1 T2
(A)
A [ 1 x1 x2 x3 1 ]
h1 k1 k2 k3 h2
Thermal resistance is defined by

T1 T2
R
Q

Rearranging, we get

T1 T2
Q
R

Thermal resistance of the composite slab is given by

1 1 x1 x2 x3 1
R [ ]
A h1 k1 k 2 k3 h2

Thermal resistance has the units of K/W.

 Overall heat transfer has come into use in dealing with the
composite cases.
it is usually denoted by U and is defined as follows:

Q UA(T1 T2 ) (B)
Comparing equations (A) and (B), the overall heat transfer
coefficient for a composite slab is given by

1
U
1 x x x 1
[ 1 2 3 ]
h1 k1 k 2 k3 h2

it is obvious that the units of U are the same as the units of h, W/m2K
 Thermal resistance of a composite cylinder:

Consider a long pipe of inner and outer radii r1 and r2 and a thermal
insulation of thermal conductivity k2 is wrapped around it to a radius
r3. it is assumed that the heat transfer coefficient at the radius r 3 of
the insulation surface is ho while the heat transfer coefficient at inner
surface of pipe is hi.

Using the fact that thermal resistance in series can be added, the
total thermal resistance of a length L is given by,
1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) 1
R
2 r1Lhi 2 k1L 2 k2 L 2 r3 Lho
Therefore, the rate of heat transfer is given by

2 L(T1 T2 )
Q
1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) 1

r1hi k1 k2 r3ho

x
Therefore, thermal resistance for an infinite slab, R
( kA)

ln(r2 / r1 )
thermal resistance for an infinite cylinder, R
2 kL

thermal resistance from a surface to a fluid R 1

and vice versa (fluid film resistance), hA
 Heat transfer from extended surface (fins)

Heat transfer by convection between a surface and the fluid

surrounding it can be increased by attaching to the surface thin strips
of metal, called fins.

When heat transfer takes place by convection from both interior and
exterior surfaces of a tube or a plate, generally fins are used on the
surface where the heat transfer coefficient is low.

The fins are most commonly employed on the outside of the tubes.
The good example of the extended surface heat exchangers is some
automobile radiators.

(1) Longitudinal fins and (2) Transverse fins

 Longitudinal fins are used when the direction of flow is parallel to
the axis of the tube, whereas transverse fins are used when the
direction of flow is across the tubes.

The fins may be of a uniform or variable cross section. They also

find application in cooling of electric motors, compressors,
refrigerators, and transformers.
 Classification of extended surface / Fins:

They are generally classified as

(1) longitudinal fins (2) circumferential / transverse fins (3) pin or
spine fins

Longitudinal fins are the long metal strips (ribs) attached to the
outside of a pipe / tube along the length of the pipe /tube.
Longitudinal fins are commonly used in double pipe heat
exchangers or in a unbaffled shell and tube heat exchanger when
the fow proceeds along the axis of the tube. These are commonly
used in problems involving gases and viscous liquids.
Circumferential / transverse fins are made in a variety of types and
are used primarily for cooling and heating of gases in cross flow.
Helical fins and disc type fins are the transverse fins.
Pin fins or spine are rods /bars protruding from the surface of a
tube. These can be employed for either longitudinal flow or cross
flow.
 Effectiveness of fin
It is defined as the ratio of the heat transfer rate from a surface with the fin to the
heat transfer rate that would be obtained without the fin.

Fin efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by

the fin to the maximum heat transferable by the same fin,
if all the fin area were at base temperature.
 Fin efficiency
Consider the surface of a plane wall at temperature Tb exposed to a
medium at Temperature T. Heat is lost from the surface to the
surrounding medium by convection with a heat transfer coefficient of
h. heat transfer from a surface area As is expressed as

Q hAs (Tb T )

Now let us consider a fin of constant

cross-sectional area Ac = Ab and
length L that is attached to the
surface with a perfect contact (Fig.
340). This time heat will flow from
the surface to the fin by conduction
and from the fin to the surrounding
medium by convection with the same
heat transfer coefficient h.
 Critical radius of insulation, rc
Consider a long pipe carrying steam at Ti of inner radius r1 and
outer radius r2. it is wrapped with insulation having thermal
conductivity k2 to a radius r3. Let ho be the heat transfer coefficient at
the radius r3. the outer surface is exposed to a convective
environment at To. Let hi be the heat transfer coefficient at the inner
surface.

Rate of heat transfer is given by

2 L(Ti To )
Q
1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) 1

r1hi k1 k2 r3ho

When Q is plotted as a function of r3, other parameters being held

constant, it will pass through a maxima for a certain value of r 3. This
value is called as the critical radius.
 We have

(Ti To )
Q
1 1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) 1
[ ]
2 L r1hi k1 k2 r3ho

1 1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) 1
R 2 L [ r h k k r h ]
1 i 1 2 3 o

The above equation, all parameters except the outer radius of insulation
are considered as constant because only r3 depends upon the thickness
of insulation.
The value of critical radius (rc), that is r3, is obtained by differentiating R
with respect to r3 and equating to zero, i.e., by minimising the
denominator as the numerator is held constant.
d R 1 1 1 1 1
0 [0 0 ( 2 )]
dr3 2 L k2 r3 ho r3
 1 1

k2 r3 ho r32

k2
r3 rc
ho
Where
rc = critical radius of insulation,

It can be written as
k2 k
rc
ho h
Where
rc = critical radius of insulation, the units of m.
k = thermal conductivity of insulating material, W/mK
h = convective heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of insulation.
 Critical radius of insulation, rc
k
rc
h
Where
rc = critical radius of insulation, the units of m.
k = thermal conductivity of insulating material, W/mK
h = convective heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of insulation. (W/m2K
It is the outer radius of insulation at which the rate of
heat flow is maximum. It depends upon the thermal
conductivity and heat transfer coefficient at the outer
surface of insulation.
if the radius (for cylindrical and spherical surfaces) is
greater than the critical radius, any addition of
insulation on the tube surface decreases the heat loss.
But if the radius is less than the critical radius, as in
small diameter tubes, cables, or wires, the heat loss
will increase continuously with the addition of insulation
until the radius of the outer surface of the insulation
equals the critical radius.
 The thermal resistance concept or the electrical analogy can also be
used to solve steady heat transfer problems that involve parallel
layers or combined series-parallel arrangements.
Consider the composite wall shown in Fig. 319, which consists of
two parallel layers. The thermal resistance network, which consists
of two parallel resistances, can be represented as shown in the
figure. Noting that the total heat transfer is the sum of the heat
transfers through each layer, we have
 Now consider the combined series-parallel arrangement shown in
Fig.320. The total rate of heat transfer through this composite
system can again be expressed as
 One dimensional conduction-convection through a rectangular fin.

consider the one-dimensional fin exposed to a surrounding fluid at a

temperature T as shown in figure 2.9. The temperature of the base of
the fin is To. We approach the problem by making an energy balance of
an element of the fin of thickness dx as shown in figure.
 thus
Energy in left face = energy out right face + energy lost by convection
The defining equation for the convection heat transfer coefficient is
recalled as
q = hA(Tw -T)
Where the area in this equation is the surface area for convection. Let the
cross sectional area of the fin be A and the perimeter be P. Then the
energy quantities are

Here it is noted that the differential surface area for convection is

the product of the perimeter of the fin and the differential length dx.
 When we combine the quantities, the energy balance yields

Then equation becomes

The other boundary condition depends on the physical situation.

Several cases may be considered:
 TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
The temperature of a body, in general, varies with time as well as
position. In rectangular coordinates, this variation is expressed as
T(x, y, z, t), where (x, y, z) indicates variation in the x, y, and z
directions, respectively, and t indicates variation with time.
we considered heat conduction under steady conditions, for which
the temperature of a body at any point does not change with time.
we consider the variation of temperature with time as well as
position in one- and multidimensional systems.
We start this chapter with the analysis of lumped systems in which
the temperature of a solid varies with time but remains uniform
throughout the solid at any time. Then we consider the variation of
temperature with time as well as position for one-dimensional heat
conduction problems such as those associated with a large plane
wall, a long cylinder, a sphere, and a semi-infinite medium using
transient temperature charts and analytical solutions. Finally, we
consider transient heat conduction in multidimensional systems by
utilizing the product solution.
 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed

to behave like a lump whose interior temperature
remains essentially uniform at all times during a
heat transfer process. The temperature of such
bodies can be taken to be a function of time only,
T(t). Heat transfer analysis that utilizes this
idealization is known as lumped system analysis,
which provides great simplification in certain
classes of heat transfer problems without much
sacrifice from accuracy.
Consider a small hot copper ball coming out of an
oven (Fig. 41). Measurements indicate that the
temperature of the copper ball changes with time,
but it does not change much with position at any
given time. Thus the temperature of the ball remains
uniform at all times, and we can talk about the
temperature of the ball with no reference to a
specific location.
 Now let us go to the other extreme and consider a large roast in an
oven. If you have done any roasting, you must have noticed that the
temperature distribution within the roast is not even close to being
uniform.
You can easily verify this by taking the roast out before it is
completely done and cutting it in half. You will see that the outer
parts of the roast are well done while the center part is barely warm.
Thus, lumped system analysis is not applicable in this case. Before
presenting a criterion about applicability of lumped system analysis,
we develop the formulation associated with it.
 Consider a body of arbitrary shape of mass m, volume V, surface area
(As), density (), and specific heat (Cp) initially at a uniform temperature
(Ti) (Fig. 42).At time t = 0,
The body is placed into a medium at temperature T, and heat transfer
takes place between the body and its environment, with a heat transfer
coefficient (h).
For the sake of discussion, we will assume that T > Ti, but the analysis
is equally valid for the opposite case. We assume lumped system
analysis to be applicable, so that the temperature remains uniform within
the body at all times and changes with time only, T = T(t).
 During a differential time interval (dt), the temperature of the body
rises by a differential amount (dT). An energy balance of the solid for
the time interval (dt) can be expressed as
 Criteria for Lumped System Analysis

The lumped system analysis certainly provides great convenience in

heat transfer analysis, and naturally we would like to know when it is
appropriate to use it.
The first step in establishing a criterion for the applicability of the
lumped system analysis is to define a characteristic length as
 It is generally accepted that lumped system analysis is applicable if
 Module 2 (12 hours)
Concepts of heat transfer by convection, counter-current and parallel
flows, energy balances, overall heat transfer coefficient, log-mean
temperature difference, individual heat transfer coefficient, calculation
of overall heat transfer coefficients from individual coefficients, fouling
factors, analogies between transfer of momentum and heat
Reynolds analogy, Prandtl and Coulburn analogy, dimensional
analysis in heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient for flow through pipe,
non circular conduit, flow past flat plate, flow through packed beds,
heat transfer by natural convection.
 Convection
Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection,
depending on how the fluid motion is initiated.
In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means
such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of
warmer fluid and the fall of the cooler fluid.
 We then discuss the velocity and thermal boundary layers, and
laminar and turbulent flows.
We continue with the discussion of the dimensionless Reynolds,
Prandtl, and Nusselt numbers, and their physical significance.
Shows that convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid
properties dynamic viscosity(), thermal conductivity (k), density (),
and specific heat (Cp), as well as the fluid velocity (v).
It also depends on the geometry and the roughness of the solid
surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow (such as being
streamlined or turbulent).
the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to
the temperature difference and is conveniently expressed by
Newtons law of cooling as
 the convection heat transfer coefficient (h) can be defined as the
rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit
surface area per unit temperature difference.
Nusselt Number
It is ratio of heat transfer by convection to conduction across the
fluid layer of thickness L.
 Individual and overall heat transfer coefficients

Consider that a heat exchanger typically involves two flowing

fluids separated by a solid wall. Heat is first transferred from the hot
fluid to the wall by convection, through the wall by conduction, and
from the wall to the cold fluid again by convection.
The thermal resistance network
associated with this heat transfer
process involves two convection and
one conduction resistances, as shown
in Figure 137. Here the subscripts i
and o represent the inner and outer
surfaces of the inner tube. For a
double-pipe heat exchanger, we have
Ai = DiL and Ao = DoL, and the
thermal resistance of the tube wall in
this case is
 where k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material and L is the
length of the tube. Then the total thermal resistance becomes

The Ai is the area of the inner surface of

the wall that separates the two fluids,
and Ao is the area of the outer surface of
the wall.
In other words, Ai and Ao are surface
areas of the separating wall wetted by
the inner and the outer fluids
respectively.
When one fluid flows inside a circular
tube and the other outside of it, we have
Ai = DiL and Ao = DoL (Fig. 138).
 In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to combine all
the thermal resistances in the path of heat flow from the hot fluid to
the cold one into a single resistance R, and to express the rate of
heat transfer between the two fluids as

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, whose unit is W/ m 2. C,

which is identical to the unit of the ordinary convection coefficient (h).
Canceling T, the above equation reduces to

Perhaps you are wondering why we have two overall heat transfer
coefficients Ui and Uo for a heat exchanger. The reason is that every
heat exchanger has two heat transfer surface areas Ai and Ao , which,
in general, are not equal to each other.
 Note that Ui Ai = Uo Ao , but Ui is not equal to Uo unless Ai = Ao.
Therefore, the overall heat transfer coefficient U of a heat exchanger
is meaningless unless the area on which it is based is specified.
When the wall thickness of the tube is small and the thermal
conductivity of the tube material is high, as is usually the case, the
thermal resistance of the tube is negligible (Rwall 0) and the inner
and outer surfaces of the tube are almost identical (Ai Ao As). Then
the above equation for the overall heat transfer coefficient simplifies
to
Energy Balance
Log Mean Temperature Difference
 N Nu ,X 0.332( N Re, X )1/2 ( N Pr )1/3

The above equation gives the local value of Nusselt number at a

distance x from the leading edge.

hx X
N Nu ,X
k
But in practice more important is the average value of Nusselt
number over the entire heated length of the plate L, defined as

hL
N Nu
k
hL
0.664( N Re, L )1/2 ( N Pr )1/3
k
The above given equations are valid only for the Prandtl number of
unity or greater than one, since in the derivation it is assumed that the
thermal boundary layer is smaller than the hydrodynamic boundary
boundary layer. However, these equations can be used for gases with
Prandtl number = 0.7 with a liitle error.
 In the above equations, the fluid properties must be evaluated at
the mean film temperature,

(Tw T )
Tf
2