Research Training

Research Methods
By Abdu Abagibe (Ph.D)
Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Introductory Questions
What experience do you have in conducting research?

What are the major challenges you face in conducting research?
What are your expectations for this training?
What do you like to gain?

Presentation Outline
Objectives of the Training
The Concept and Nature of Research
Variables in Research
Types of Research
The Research Problem & Research Hypothesis
The Concept & Nature & Sampling Techniques
Data Collection & Standardization
Preparation of the Research Proposal &
Data Organization, Analysis, Interpretation & Reporting the
Research Results

Objectives of the Training
[
General Objective
This training is designed to enhance research skill &

understanding of the participants.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the training, participants will be able to:

Describe the d/t types of research & their key characteristics;
Identify the sampling techniques & data gathering instruments
to be employed in a given research process;
Recognize ethical obligations in research;
Design a research proposal , &
Evaluate/critique research proposals & research reports
The Concept & Nature of Research
Introduction
What makes human beings different from other forms of animals?
Their inquisitive nature.
When does this start?

At childhood age
This could be the implication that why human beings have long
been concerned with their envt to understand the nature of the
phenomena it presents to their senses.
How do people tackle the problems they face or find answers to their
question?
From where do they get answers?

Source of knowledge?

Sources of/ approaches to knowledge:
Experience,
logical reasoning, &
systematic study or what is commonly known as scientific
method.
However, the systematic study/scientific method in its process

combines both experience & reasoning, and must be regarded as
the most successful approach to the discovery of truth and whose
form represents what is known as research.
What is meant by the tem research?

The Meaning of Research
Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific

methodology to solve problems & creates new generally applicable
knowledge.
is a quest for knowledge and understanding

is a process that acquires new knowledge & seeks truth
Research is a process of steps used to collect & analyze infn so as to

make judgments & best decisions about an issue & able to justify
these decisions to any one seeking information.

Why Research?
Research adds to our knowledge.
Addresses gaps in knowledge
Expands & replicates knowledge
Adds voices of individuals to knowledge
Research helps to improve practice.
Educators & practitioners gain new ideas for their job.
Educators can connect with other educators
Research helps as a basis for policy debates.
Research allows people to weigh d/t perspectives on policy
issues.
Research enables people to make informed decisions regarding
policy
etc.

Problems with Research Today
Unclear statements about the intent of the study
Inarticulate rendering of the research problem
Unclear design & methodology
Questionable data
Contradictory or vague findings
etc.,

Variables in Research
What is a Variable?
A variable is an event, a characteristic or an attribute that can be:

measured (can be assessed & recorded on an instrument) &
Varies (can assume d/t values or scores for d/t individuals).
Example:
1. Human being vary in terms of:
physical characteristics such as ht, wt, etc
intellectual characteristics such as intelligence, self- concept,
etc.
2. Gender, ethnicity, socio economic status , test scores, age, work
experience; etc., are all variables & thus, people differ on these
characteristics.

In research, variables differ in many ways. Among others, they do
differ by the way they are:
i) represented
Variables & Constructs
A variable is an attribute/characteristic stated in a specific/applied way.
A construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract,
general way.
Construct Student Achievement
Variable Grade Point Average
ii) measured
Categorical &Continuous Measures of Variables
A categorical measure is a value of a variable that
doesnt provide qt infn about how people or objects differ
shows that persons or things differ in qualities but not in quantities
E.g., eye color, religion, gender, political party
A continuous measure is the value of a variable assigned by the
researcher to a point along a continuum of scores, from low to
high. (e.g., age)
b) Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

Quantitative variables exist on a continuum that ranges from
low to high, or less to more.
Ordinal, interval and ratio variables
describe performance in quantitative terms.
Examples : Test scores, height, speed, age and class
size.
Qualitative variables: provide information about qualitative
differences only.
Nominal /categorical variables

Families of Variables in Quantitative Studies
Independent variable
An attribute or characteristic that influences or affects an
outcome or DV
Is a variable that is responsible for the occurrence of
behaviour of DV
Can be manipulated & controlled by the researcher so that its
effect can be seen on the DV
It can also be referred as classifying, measured, cause,
experimental, manipulated or treatment variable.
Dependent variable
An attribute or characteristic influenced by the IDV.
Is the one whose value or occurrence or extent depends on &
is affected by IDV
It can also be referred as the outcome, effect, criterion or
consequence variable
Examples
i) In studying The Effect of Homework Provision on Academic
Achievement of Students ;
The DV is - academic achievement
IDV is Homework provision
ii) If The effect of reinforcement on students attitude toward
school is a research title, what are the ID & D variables?
IDV = Reinforcement DV = Attitude towards school
Here reinforcement could be taken as a qt variable, b/se it is

likely to be measured on a numerical scale
Example
Strongly favorable towards school could be assigned a higher
number, whereas
Strongly unfavorable could be assigned a lower one.

Control Variables (most likely seen as groups instead of variable)
Variables that serve as a benchmarking to cross-check the changes in
the DV due to the treatment being manipulated on it.
Extraneous variables
IDVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect
the DV
Are IDVs that influence in participant selection, procedures, statistics,
or the design & likely to affect the outcome & provide an alternative
explanation of results than what was expected
E.g., The researcher wants to test the hypothesis: a relationship between
childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts
self-concept IDV, social studies achievement is a DV
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, & is an
extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of
extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an experimental
error.

extraneous variables could be grouped into two.
i) Variables that can be controlled

A) Participant variables
These include both intervening variables & organismic variables
Intervening variable (mediating variable):
A variable that intervenes b/n or alters the relation b/n the
IDV & DV
It cannot be directly observed but can be controlled.
E.g., Anxiety, Boredom, etc
Organismic variables: Variables that cannot be altered but can be
controlled. E.g., Sex of participants
B) Environmental Variables: variables that appear in the setting of a study
(e.g., learning materials) that may cause unwanted difference b/n groups
Note: One important characteristic of a good research design is to

minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s)
By controlling effect of extraneous variable(s)

ii) Variables that could not be controlled
Confounding variables (spurious variables):
Attributes or characteristics that the researcher cannot
directly measure b/se their effects cannot be easily separated
from the other variables, even though they may influence the
r/ship b/n the IDV and the DV.
When the DV is not free from the influence of extraneous
variable(s) the r/ship b/n the DV & IDV is said to be
confounded/confused by an extraneous variable(s).

Probable Cause Effect
(X) (Y) (Z)
Independent Extraneous Dependent

Variables Variables
Variables
Control
Variables
Participant Variables
Intervening
Variables Confounding
Organismic Variables
Variables
Environmental
Variables

Types
Different of Research
writers categorize the research types into various
ways.
Best and Khan (1998) stated that all studies fall under one, or a
combination of the following types:
i. Historical research,
ii. Descriptive(qualitative & quantitative) research, &
iii. Experimental research.
Gay, Mills & Airasian (2009) classified research types based on:
i. Method (qual. & quant. research types) , &
ii. Purpose/function(Appl. & Basic research types )
Some other writers also classify research types based on:
i. Method ( Historical, Descriptive & Experimental R.)
ii. Purpose/function(Appl. & Basic R. types), &
iii. Nature of data analysis ( Ql. & Qt. R. types).
It could be said that an attempt to classify research types poses
a difficult problem & that there is no generally accepted
scheme.
However, most writers agree on the classification system that
take into account:
The nature of the problem
- The way it is defined
- What it stands for
&
The kind of data to be sought
- Numerical or non numerical data
Therefore, from the different approaches of classification
presented above, it seems convincing to see the different
research types based on the:
method/technique of data analysis &
purpose/function.

Thus,
I. Based on Method/Technique of Data Analysis
Qt, Ql, & Mixed Research
II. Based on purpose/function
Applied Research &Basic/Fundamental Research
I. Classification of Research by Method
i. Quantitative Research
Is the collection & analysis of numerical data to describe, explain, predict or control
phenomena of interest.
However this method entails more than just the use of numerical data
It is based on philosophical belief relatively stable, uniform, & coherent world that we
can measure, understand, & generalize about.
But the view adopted from the natural sciences implies that the world & the laws that
govern it are some what predictable & can be understood by scientific research.

ii. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people
interpret and make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live.
It is a type of research in which the researcher relies on the views of participants; asks
broad and general questions; collects narrative and visual data (ie. non numerical, but
that of words/text)) from participants; describes and analyzes these words for themes;
and conducts the inquiry in a subjective and biased manner.
It helps to explore & understand the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a

social or human problem
It seeks to probe deeply in to the research setting to obtain in-depth

understandings about the way things are, why they are that way, & how the
participants in the context perceive them.
It does not necessarily accept the view of a stable world,
All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context,
What differences exist b/n Ql & Qt research methods?

Differences b/n Ql & Qt Research Methods

iii) A Mixed Approach
Is an approach to inquiry that combines both quantitative & qualitative forms.
A mixed research follows a procedure of collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative
and qualitative research methods in a single study to understand
a research problem.
Why Mixed Method? (Rationale for the Design)
It helps to:
successfully explain social events & r/ships in their full complexity,
The more- evidence-the-better pictures argument
better understand the context and reality in breadth & depth,
obtain a variety of infn on the same issue,
Multiple angles argument

use the strength of each of the ql & qt approaches to overcome the deficiencies of the
other,
To narrow infn gap or clarify insufficient argument
achieve a higher degree of validity and reliability (Schulze, 2003; Sarantakos ,1998)
When to Use Mixed Methods Designs
When both qt & ql data, together, provide a better understanding of

your research problem than either type by itself
When one type of research (ql or qt) is not enough to address the
research problem or answer the research questions
To incorporate a qualitative component into an otherwise

quantitative study
To build from one phase of a study to another

Explore qualitatively then develop an instrument
Follow-up a quantitative study qualitatively to obtain
more detailed information

Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs
a. Collecting qt (Numeric) & ql (Text)data)

b. Priority
Equal weight
Qt carries more weight than Ql
Ql carries more weight than Qt
c. Sequence
Collect both qt & ql data at the same time
Collect qt data first, followed by ql data
Collect ql data first, followed by qt data

II. Classification of Research by Purpose
In this regard, there are two major research categories.
Basic Research & Applied Research
i. Basic Research
Is conducted so solely for the purpose of developing or refining a
theory.
Is not concerned with the immediate utility of their findings
ii. Applied research

conducted for the purpose of applying or testing a theory to
determine the usefulness in solving practical problems
Evaluation research & Action research are among its sub sections

a. Evaluation Research
Is a systematic process of collecting & analyzing data about the
quality, effectiveness & merit or value of programs products or
practices.
[
It may be formative (that occurs during the design &

implementation phases) or summative (that focuses on the overall
quality or worth of a completed program or product).
b. Action Research
Action research is systematic inquiry done by the practitioners in
order to improve their regular duties (mgt, teaching, processing,
etc.
It is a systematic inquiry done by teachers (or other individuals in
an educational setting) to gather information about, &
subsequently improve, the ways their particular educational
setting operates, how they teach, and how well their students
learn (Mills, 2000).
Types of Quantitative Research Method
This method includes:
Survey Research - describe the existing/current condition,

Correlational Research - investigate the relation b/n two or
more variables
Experimental
Research, & provide information about
Causal Comparative Research the cause -effect outcomes
etc.,

i. Survey Research
It is used to assess attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, opinions, or characteristics, or
trends, as well as for follow-up analyses & evaluations
It determines & reports the way things are; and
Involves collecting numerical data to test hypotheses/basic questions.
Example.
Perception of the society on the quality of secondary school education
Attitude of Manufacturing Industries in Utilizing Indigenous

Technologies
Challenges Facing Survey Research

Constructing questions that have clarity, consistency and tact
Participants failure to return questionnaires & unwillingness to be surveyed as
well as to attend scheduled interviews
If the response rate is low, then valid trustworthy conclusions cannot be drawn.
Example
Out of the 100 questionnaires distributed if 40 have been returned as all positive.
Can we conclude based on these responses ?
When do we use Survey Research? Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

The Types of Survey Method
Time of Data Collection
Longitudinal Cross-Sectional
(Study overtime ) (Study at one point in time )
Trends Change Change

in the in the Attitudes
in a sub- popn
same same and
group Community Program
popn people Practices
identified by a needs Evaluation
over over
common
time time
characteristics
over time
Groups National
Comparisons Assessment

Key Characteristics of Survey Research
Sampling from a population
Collecting data mainly through questionnaires & to some extent
through interviews, FGD & observations ,as well as from documents
Obtaining a high response rate
Reducing Errors in Survey Research
Sampling error: Select large sample from the population as much

as possible
Measurement error: Use a good instrument with clear, unambiguous
questions & response options
Non-response error: Use rigorous administration procedures to
achieve as large a return rate as possible

ii. Correlation Research (CR)
Involves collecting data to determine whether, and to what extent (degree)
a relation/ association exists b/n two or more quantifiable variables.
The purpose of CR may be to establish relations or use the existing
relations to make predictions.
Correlation refers to a quantitative measure of the degree of
correspondence.
The degree to which two variables are related is expressed as a correlation
coefficient (r) whose value ranges from -1 to 1 inclusive. If no relation,
then , r = 0
Note that the results of correlation studies do not suggest cause-effect
relations among variables.
Eg. A positive correlation b/n self-concept & achievement does
not imply that self-concept causes achievement.
When to Use Correlation Research Method
To examine the relationship between two or more variables
To predict an outcome:
Use one variable to predict the score on another variable
Characteristics of Correlation Research Method
1. Displays of scores (scatter plots and matrices)
2. Associations between scores (direction, form, and strength)
For Associations b/n Two Scores
Direction (positive or negative)
Form (linear or nonlinear)
Degree and strength (size of coefficient)
Even though the degree & strength of association is
not uniform through out, most statisticians agree on
the following determination of the degree & strength of
association
.20 r < .35: Slight relationship.
.35 r < .65: limited prediction.
.66 r < .85: good prediction

.86 : very good prediction
iii) Causal Comparative Research (CCR)
CCR is also said to be ex-post facet (Latin saying) meaning after
the fact research.
It attempts to determine the causes or consequences of noted
difference that already exist b/n or among groups or individuals.
Is a type of research method used to explore not only what a
phenomenon like but also how and why it occurred?
Its aim is to
Compare similarities and differences among the phenomenon
(Associational research).
Discover what factors contribute to the occurrence of certain
events or practices.

It is employed when the researcher studies a phenomena having
factors that
Can not be easily selected, collected & manipulated to
establish cause - effect r/ship
Can not manipulate IDV to establish controls that are
required in experiments. This may be because a variable:
can not be manipulated (such as ethnicity)or
one that might have been manipulated but for one

reason or another not been (such as teaching style) and
sometimes due to ethical constraints.
Studies of this type usually use statistical correlation to establish
r/ship
It attempts to establish cause-effect relationship.

Examples
i) How does preschool attendance affect social maturity at the end
of the first grade.
The grouping variable is the preschool attendance (i.e the variable can
take two or more values: Students attending preschool and students not
attending preschool), &
The DV, or effect, is social maturity at the end of the first grade.
Note: If researcher could not be able to control the IDV b/se the groups are
pre-existing, the variable is said to be a grouping variable, instead of
an IDV.
ii) How does having a working mother affect the childs school
absenteeism?
The grouping variable is the employment status of the mother (again
with two possible values: the mother works or does not work), &
The DV is absenteeism, measured as number of days absent.
Exercise: In the topic: The difference b/n male and female students in
language acquisition.
Identify the grouping variable & the DV
Weaknesses in CCR
B/s the cause under the study has already occurred, the researcher
has no control over it.
E.g. In the case of The effect of smoking on lung cancer; the
groups are pre-existing.
The researcher designs a study comparing the frequency of
lung cancer diagnosis in two groups: long time smokers and
nonsmokers.
In this case, attempts used to draw conclusion in the study would be
tenuous /weak and tentative at the best.
Is it smoking that causes higher rate of Lung Cancer?
Is it living in a smoggy area, urban environment or is it some
combination of smoking and environment?
A clear cause-effect link can not be obtained.
A True-causal comparative relation can be determined only through
experimental research in which the researcher maintains control of an
IDV; but in many cases an experimental study is inappropriate or
unethical.
Design of CCR
The basic causal comparative design involves selecting two or more
groups that differ on a particular variable of interest and
comparing them to another variable (s).
No manipulation is involved.
The groups are different in one or two ways.
The design can be either of the following two types.

Group IDV DV
A-I Group possesses Characteristics level of self-esteem

e.g. dropout
A-II Group does not possess level of self-esteem
Characteristics (-c)
e.g. non dropout
B-1 Group possess Characteristics one Amount of job satisfaction
(C1) e.g. counsellors
Group possess Characteristics two Amount of job satisfaction
B-II (C2)
e.g. teachers
An example of case A
A comparison of two groups one composed of children with
brain-injury & the other composed of children without brain-
injury.
An example of case B
Individuals who learned algebra in traditional instruction &
those who learned algebra in computer assisted instruction.
Comparison b/n CCR & CR
Similarities
Both are associational researches.
Both seek to identify variables that are worth of later exploration
through experimental research that is they provide guidance for
subsequent experimental studies.
Neither permits the manipulation of variables by the researcher
Differences
CCR typically compare two or more groups of subjects while CR
require two or more scores on each variable for each subject.
CCR involve at least one categorical variable (group
membership) where as CR investigate two or more qt variables
CCR compare average or use cross-break tables where as CR

analyse data using scatter pilots and /or correlation coefficients.
iv. Experimental Research
Is a method of research that involves the manipulation & controlling

of variables to see their r/ship
It is concerned with the what will concept.
It is used to: establish cause - effect r/ship b/n IDV & DVs, test
theories, & compare two or more groups
Unlike the survey research, in which the researcher simply observes
conditions as they occur naturally, the researcher in experimental
research manipulates the IDV & controls/ eliminates the factors
which might complicate the observation .
One way of controlling the variables/ factors is by randomization
(random assignment) of the subjects of the study
The Principle of Replication (repeating the experiment more than once) is also
used sometimes to increase the statistical accuracy of the experiment
It offers an opportunity to generalize or apply the findings

Unlike the CCR, it controls IDVs.
Examples
1. Is personalized instruction from a teacher more effective for
increasing students computational skills than computer
instruction.
IDV= type of instruction (with two values):
Personalized instruction &
Computer instruction
DV = computational skills
A group of students who have never experienced either
personalized instruction or computer skills are selected and
randomly divided in to two groups.
2. Is there an effect of reinforcement on students attitude toward
school?
IDV = type of reinforcement (with three values):
positive,
negative or
no reinforcement
DV = Students attitude toward school.

Exercises: For each of the following research titles identify the IDV
& the DV
3. The effects of a new medication on headaches.

4. The comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield
of wheat.
5. Integrated treatment of industrial wastes towards prevention of

regional water resources contamination.
6. The Treatment of Mine Waste to Achieve Cost Effective Engineered
Closure of Tailings Dams

Six Major Characteristics of Experimental Designs
i. Random Assignment
Randomly assigns individuals to conditions or to groups
Random assignment equates groups & distributes variability
b/n or among groups & conditions
ii. Control over Extraneous Variables
To minimize the impact of extraneous variables
Pre & posttests
Matching participants
Identifying covariates & trying to control them.
E.g., Type of Instruction---IDV
Rate of Smoking------DV
Parents who smoke----Covariate
If possible taking homogeneous samples
Blocking (overcrowding) variables
Activity: What could be the possible research topic of the above

example?
iii. Manipulation of a Treatment Condition
Identify a treatment variable
Identify the conditions or levels of the treatment variable
Manipulate the treatment conditions
iv. Outcomes Measures

Measuring outcome, criterion or effect variables on continuous
scale.
v. Group Comparison
Compare different groups on a condition
vi. Guard Against Threats to Validity

Threats to Internal Validity
Internal validity
The observed changes that took place are a result of your
intervention & are not the result of other causes.
Threats
History, Maturation, Regression, Selection,
Mortality, instrumentation, etc
Threats to External validity
External validity
The degree to which the findings are generalizable to a
larger population
Threats
Interaction of selection and treatment
Interaction of setting and treatment
Interaction of history and treatment

Types of Experimental Research Designs
There are two major types of experimental designs:
Single variable design & Factorial designs
1. Single Variable Designs
Are designs that involve one manipulated IDV.
Are classified as:
Pre-experimental design,
True experimental design, &
Quasi experimental. design

i. Pre-Experimental Designs
Are weak in controlling threats to validity & extraneous
variables
Are not useful for most purposes except, perhaps, to provide a
preliminary investigation of a problem.
Are classified into three sub-groups
a) The one-shot case study

Involves a single group that is exposed to a treatment (x) and
then post tested (0)
[
Even if the research participants score high on the post test, you
can not attribute their performance to the treatment b/se you do
not know what they know before you administer the treatment
Threats to validity (such as history, maturation, mortality, etc)
are not controlled

b) The One Group Pretest Posttest Design
This involves a single-group that is pretested (0), exposed to a treatment (x),
and then tested again (0).
The success of the treatment is determined by comparing pretest and posttest
scores.
This design cannot control some threats to validity.
For example
History & maturation are not controlled.
If participants do significantly better on the posttest than on the
pretest, the improvement may or may not be due to the treatment.
Testing and instrumentation also are not controlled
the participants may learn something on the pretest that helps
them on the posttest, or
unreliability of the measures may be responsible for the
apparent improvement.
The longer the study takes, the more likely threat to validity.
Is only appropriate when the behavior to be measured is not likely to change

all by itself.
c) The Static-Group comparison
This involves at least two non-randomly formed groups, one that
receives a new or unusual treatment (i.e., the experimental
treatment) & another that receives a traditional treatment (i.e, the
control treatment).
Both groups are post tested.

The purpose of control group is fulfilled only to the degree that the
control group is equivalent to the experimental group.
In this design, b/se participants are not randomly assigned to

groups & no pretest data are collected, it is difficult to determine
the extent to which the groups are equivalent.
In spite of its limitations, the static-group comparison design is

occasionally employed in a preliminary or exploratory study.

ii. True Experimental Designs
Control for nearly all threats to internal & external validity.

As their common characteristics they randomly assign participants
to treatment groups, while other designs do not.
Have three sub-designs.
a) The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Requires at least two groups, where both take pretest & posttest.
The combination of random assignment, & the presence of a pretest
& a control group serve to control for all threats to internal validity.
Random assignment controls for regression & selection factors;

The pretest controls for mortality, randomization,
&maturation; &
The control group control for history, testing &
instrumentation.

The only weakness in this design is a possible interaction b/n the
pretest & the treatment, which may make the results
generalizable only to pretested groups.
The seriousness of this potential weakness depends on the nature
of the pretest, the nature of the treatment, & the length of the
study.
The pretest is used to see if the groups are essentially the same on
the DV at the start of the study.
If they are, posttest scores can be directly compared using the T-
test.
b) The Posttest only control group Design

Is the same as the pretest posttest control group design except
there is no pretest
Participants are randomly assigned to at least two groups,

exposed to the different treatments & are post tested.
c) The Solomon Four Group Design
This is a combination of the pretest post test control group
design, & the posttest-only control group design.
It involves random assignment of participants to one of four
groups.
Two groups are pretested & two are not; one of the pretested
groups & one of the groups not pretested receive the experimental
treatment; & all four groups are post tested.

iii. Quasi Experimental Designs
Sometimes it is just not possible to assign individual participants
to groups randomly.
For example, to receive permission to include school children in a
study, a researcher often has to agree to keep existing class rooms
intact.
In other words, entire classrooms, not individual students
are assigned to treatments.
Have two sub-designs.
a) The non equivalent control group design
b) Counter balanced designs

a)The Non Equivalent Control Group Design
Is very much like the pretest-post-test control group design
discussed previously.
Here two or more treatment groups are pretested, administrated
a treatment, & post tested.
It involves random assignment of intact groups to treatments not

random assignment of individuals.
For example, suppose a school volunteered six intact classrooms for

a study.
Three of the six classrooms may be randomly assigned to the

experimental group (x1) & the remaining three assigned to the
control group (x2).

b) Counter Balanced Designs
In these designs all groups receive all treatments but in a
different order and groups are post tested after each treatment.
The only restriction is that the number of groups should be equal
to the number of treatments.
The order in which the groups receive the treatments is randomly
determined.
These designs are usually employed with intact groups when
administration of a pretest is not possible, although participants
may be pretested.

2. Factorial Designs
Are elaborations of single variable experimental designs to permit
investigation of two or more variables, at least one of which is
manipulated by the researcher.
The term factorial refers to a design that has more than one IDV
(or grouping variable), also known as a factor.
The purpose of factorial design is to determine whether the effects

of an IDV are generalizable across all levels or whether the effects
are specific to particular levels.
For example: One method of math instruction may be more effective for
high aptitude students, where as a different method may
be more effective for low-aptitude students.
In this example, method of instruction is one factor and student

aptitude is another

Method of instruction has two levels: there are two types of instruction:
student aptitude also has two levels: high aptitude and low aptitude.
Thus, a 2x2 (two by two) factorial design has two factors, and each
factor has two levels.
This four-celled design is the simplest possible factorial design.
Steps in Conducting Experimental Research

i. Decide if an experimental design fits research problem
ii. Form cause-effect hypotheses
iii. Select experimental unit and identify study participants
iv. Select an experimental treatment & introduce it
v. Choose a type of experimental design
vi. Conduct the experiment
vii. Organize & analyze the data
viii. Develop an experimental research report

Errors in Experimental Research
There are three kinds of errors
Type S error: related to the sampling of the subjects
Type G error: related to research groups
Type R error : arises b/n the replication of the experiment

Types of Qualitative Research Method

i. Case Study
Is an intensive investigation of an individual or a certain group (a family,
a group of delinquents, drop outs etc).
While the aim of survey is to scratch the surface the case study searches beneath
the surface some times discovering the cause of factors exposed by surveys
It looks at a single instance and aim at identifying the unique features and
interactions with features.
The researcher gathers data about the
Past experiences
Present status & how these factors relate to each other
[
Its major purpose is to investigate the patterns & sequences of growth &/
or changes as a function of time
In it, a researcher makes in-depth and intensive study on a limited
number of representatives cases.
Hence it narrower in scope but more exhaustive
E.g a) Problem of students with serious absenteeism in Yabelo SSS.

b) A study of delinquent students in x Secondary School
Types of Qualitative Case Studies
Intrinsic Case Study : deals with an intrinsic unusual case
Instruments' Case Study: deals with a case that provides insight into
an issue or theme.
Multiple Instruments Case Study (also called a collective case study):

deals with several cases that provide insight into an
issue (or theme)
Note: Case Study could also be categorized under qt research too.

ii. Historical Method
It deals with problems & phenomena in the past
Is concerned with the what was
It deals with the interpretation of past events & their relevance
- to present situation and
- what might happen in the future?
Note- It is only in the light of their origin and growth that many educational
problems of the present be viewed carefully
HR serves to present educational standards of the past and enables to
avoid mistakes in the past
Its purpose is to find connections b/n events in the past & variables in
the present by means of critical review of evidence
E.g. - Curriculum reform in the pre 1974 Ethiopia
- The history of modern education in Ethiopia

Types of Historical Data
Historical evidences may be classified in to three
A) Documents (usually written). Examples:
Official records, minutes of meeting, legal documents, Court decisions
charter, etc
Institutional records:
university bulletins proceedings
Memories, biography, diaries personal letter, etc
News papers, periodicals. Journals, etc
B) Relics or Remains
Archeologically remains (such as tools & utensils)
Buildings, furniture & equipment
Photographs and other records
Forms of degree, diploma & certificate rewards registers
Text books, maps, drawings, etc
Written material
C) Oral Testimony
Is a spoken account of a witness, or participation in an event?
Recorded interviews

Sources of Historical Data
Can be classified in to two categories Namely

a) Primary source of data
Refers to the original documents and remains which are the first witness of
a fact
Are the only solid basis of historical research
Are eye witness accounts and are reported by actual observer or
a participant in an event
e.g. Original records kept, eye witness, photographs, minutes of
organization etc
b) Secondarily sources of data
A record which is one or more steps removed from an original history
Here the author reports the observation of others
e.g. Most history books
Encyclopaedias
Note: Some types of materials may be secondary sources for some
purposes and primary sources for another why?
e.g High school history books
Criticism on Historical Research
In historical research, the analysis of the data comprises two
ways of determining the value of evidence. Namely- external
criticism & Internal criticism
a) External criticism:
It decides the genuineness of the source material
That is, its purpose is to establish the authenticity of the source
(through age. Authorship etc of data
b) Internal Criticism
Refers to the evaluation of the content or the information
contained in the source rather than the source material
Its purpose is to ascertain the truth fullness or credibility of
the data, its accuracy & worth.

iii. Ethnographic Designs
Ethnographic research (or ethnography), is the study of the cultural

patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting.
It focuses on a particular site/s that provide the researcher with a context
in which to study both the setting & the participants who inhabit it.
The participants are observed as they take part in naturally occurring
activities within the setting.
The ethnographic researcher before making interpretations and drawing
conclusions too early in the study, he/she should :
enter the setting slowly, learning how to become accepted by the
participants & gaining report with them.
collect data in waves, making initial observations & interpretations
about the context & participants
refine the initial interpretation by collecting & examining more data
collect another wave of data to further refine over reactions &
interpretations, to obtain a deep understanding of both the context
& its participants roles in it.
make final interpretations and draws conclusions
Lengthy engagement in the setting is a key facet of ethnographic
research.
]
The result of the ethnographic study is a holistic description and

cultural interpretation that represents the participants every day
activities, values and events.
Throughout data collection, the ethnographic researcher identifies
recurrent themes, integrates them in to existing categories, & adds new
categories as new themes or topics arise.
The success of the study relies heavily on the researchers skills in
analyzing & synthesizing the qualitative data in to coherent &
meaningful descriptions.
The research report includes:
a holistic description of the culture,
the common understandings & beliefs shared by participants,
a discussion of how these beliefs relate to life in the culture, &
discussion of how the findings, compared to literature already
published about similar groups.
In a sense, the successful researcher provides guidelines that
enable someone not in the culture to know how to think and behave
in the culture.
Example: What is the Afar student culture at ASTU?
When to Conduct Ethnographic Research?

[[[
When the study of a group helps you understand a larger issue

When you have a culture-sharing group to study
When you want a day-to-day picture of the events & activities of a
group
When you have long-term access to a culture-sharing group

Common Types of Ethnographic Design
a) Realist Ethnography
Realist ethnographer narrates study from the third-person voice
reporting what is observed.
The researcher reports objective data free from personal bias, political
goals, or judgment.
He/she produces the participants views through closely edited quotes
and has the final word on how the culture is to be interpreted &
presented.
b) Critical Ethnography
Used by politically minded researchers
Advocate for the emancipation of marginalized groups
Seek to change society
Identify and celebrate research bias: All research is value laden
Challenge status quo and ask, Why is it so?
Create literal dialogue with participants

Procedural Characteristics of Critical Ethnography:
Social issues include power, empowerment, inequity, dominance,
repression, hegemony, victimization
Collaborate actively with participants & negotiate on the final report
Self-conscious about their own interpretation
Reflexive and self-aware of their role
Non-neutral
Uses contradictions, imponderables, and tension (Denzin, 1997)

Key Characteristics of an Ethnographic Design
a. Cultural themes from cultural anthropology

Cultural Theme: General position, declared or implied, that is
openly approved or promoted in a society or group
Drawn from cultural anthropology or literature
Seen in purpose statement or research questions as a central
phenomenon
Examples:
Persistence
Identity development
Social skills
b. A culture-sharing group
Individuals who have shared
Behaviors
Beliefs
Language

Groups vary in size
Individuals interact on regular basis
Individuals interact over a period of time
Representative of a larger group
c. Examination of shared patterns of behavior, belief, and language

Discerning Shared Patterns
A shared pattern is a common social interaction that stabilizes as
tacit rules and expectations of the group
Behavior: Action taken by an individual in a cultural setting
Belief: How an individual thinks or perceives things in a
cultural setting
Language: How an individual talks to others in a cultural
setting
Types of patterns
Ideal: What should have occurred
Actual: What did occur
Projective: What might have occurred
d. Data collection through fieldwork
Doing Fieldwork
Fieldwork: The researcher gathers data in the setting where the
participants are located and where their shared patterns can be
studied
Types of data
Emic data (data supplied by the participants)
Etic data (ethnographers interpretation of participants
perspectives)
Negotiation data (information participants and researcher
agree to use in a study)
Forms of data: observations, interviews, documents
e. Description, themes, interpretation
Description: Detailed rendering of individuals and scenes in order to
depict what is going on in the culture-sharing group (detailed, thick,
rich)
Themes: How things work and naming the essential features in themes
in the cultural setting (shared patterns of behavior, thinking, talking)

Interpretation:
Inferences and conclusions about what was learned
Relates descriptions and themes back to what was learned
f. Group context or setting
Setting, situation, or environment that surrounds the cultural
group being studied
History, religion, politics, economy, the environment, physical
location
g. Researcher reflexivity
Researchers
Openly discuss respect for participants and sites
Talk about themselves
Share their experiences
Identify how their interpretations shape their discussions
about sites and groups

Steps in Conducting Ethnographic Research
i. Identify intent and type of design and relate intent to your research
problem
ii. Seek approval and access considerations
iii. Collect appropriate data emphasizing time in field, multiple sources,
collaboration
iv. Analyze and interpret data within a design
v. Write report consistent with your design
Evaluating Ethnographic Research
Is the group or case clearly identified?
Are there patterns of behavior or belief identified?
Is detail provided about the group?
Is the context that surrounds the group specified?
Is the researcher reflexive?
Are broader interpretations given?
Does the ethnography convey how the culture works?
Is the accuracy checked? Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016
iv. Narrative Research (NR)
Is the study of how different humans experience the world around
them
it involves a methodology that allows people to tell the
stories of their storied lives.
As a distinct form of QLR, narrative research typically focuses on
studying about single person.
Here, researchers describe the lives of individuals, collect & tell
stories about peoples lives, write narratives of individual
experiences, & discuss the meaning of those experiences for the
individual
B/s of the collaborative nature of NR, it is important for the
researcher & participant to establish a trusting & respectful r/ship.
One of the goals of NR (for e.g., in education) is to increase
understanding of central issues related to teaching & learning
through the telling & retelling of teachers stories.
When Do You Use Narrative Designs?
When individuals are willing to tell their stories
When you:
Want to report personal experiences in a particular setting
Want a close bond with participants
Have a chronology of events
Want to write in a literary way and develop the micro picture
When participants want to process their stories
Questions to be Asked in Narrative Designs
Who writes or records the story? (biography; autobiography)
How much of a life is recorded or presented? (life history;
personal experience story)
Who provides the story?
Is a theoretical lens being used? (ideology that provides
structure)
When can narrative forms be combined? (biography and
personal account)
Key Characteristics of Narrative Designs
a. Individual experiences
b. Chronology of the experiences
c. Collecting individual stories
d. Restoring
e. Coding for themes
f. Context or setting
g. Collaboration with participants
h.Individual Experiences
The narrative researcher
Explores experiences of a single individual
Is interested in exploring the past and present experiences of
that individual\
Is also interested in how the individual interacts with others

b. Chronology of Experiences
Researcher analyzes and writes about an individual life using a
time sequence or chronology of events
Researcher orders these events in a way that makes sense to a
reader
c. Collecting Individual Stories
A story in narrative research is a first-person oral telling or
retelling of an individuals experiences.
Stories:
Have a beginning, middle, and end
Involve:
a predicament, conflict, or struggle;
a protagonist or character; &
a sequence with implied causality (a plot) during which
the predicament is resolved in some fashion
Like novels, have time, place, plot, and scene
Varied sources of data comprise the database.
d. Restoring
Restoring the individual stories
Researcher gathers stories and analyzes them for elements of
the story.
Researcher rewrites the story to place it in a chronological
sequence.
Restoring provides a causal link among ideas.
Information would include interaction, continuity, and
situation.
The Process of Restorying
Transcription: Researcher conducts the interview &
transcribes the conversation from an audiotape.
Re-transcription: Researcher identifies the key elements (the
setting, characters, actions, problems, & resolution) of the
story using codes.
Restorying: Researcher organizes the key codes into a
sequence.
The Elements of Restoring
Context: The environment, conditions, time of year
Characters: Individuals in the story described as archetypes,
their behaviors, personalities, patterns
Actions: Movements of individuals through the story that
illustrate behavior of characters
Problem: Questions to be answered
Resolution: Answers to the questions
e. Coding for Themes
Themes
Provide the complexity of the story
Add depth to the insight about understanding an individuals
experiences
Can be incorporated into the passage retelling the individuals
experience or as a separate section of the study

f. Context or Setting
Describes the context or setting for the individual stories:
Includes the people involved in the story
Includes the physical setting
Setting may be described before events or actions, or can
be woven throughout the study
g. Collaboration with Participants
Collaboration: Inquirer actively involves the participant
in the inquiry as it unfolds .
Strategies
Negotiating relationships
Involving participants in the process of research
Negotiating transitions in the research process

Potential Issues in Narrative Research
Is the story authentic?

Is the story real? (Participants may not be able to tell the real
story.)
Who owns the story? (Does the researcher have permission to
share it?)
Is participants voice lost?
Does the researcher gain at the expense of the participant?

Steps in Narrative Research
Build in past, Build in place Describe Analyze story
present, future or setting their story for themes
Have the Collect other

tell story field texts Rectory or retell
the individuals Collaborate with
3 Collect stories from the story
individual that reflect
participant storyteller in
all phases of research.
5
personal experience
Purposefully select an
4
Write the story about the
2 individual to learn
about the phenomenon
participants personal and
social experiences.
6
Identify a phenomenon Validate the accuracy of
that addresses a
1 problem (e.g., educnal).
the report.
7
Evaluating Narrative Research
Does the researcher focus on individual experiences?
Is there a focus on a single individual or a few individuals?
Did the researcher collect the story of an individuals experience?
Was there a restorying by the researcher of the participants story?
In the restorying, was the participants voice as well as the researchers
voice heard?
Did the researcher identify themes that emerged from the story?
Did the story include information about the place or setting of the
individual?
Did the story have a temporal, chronological sequence including the past,
present, and future?
Is there evidence that the researcher collaborated with the participant?
Does the story adequately address the purpose and questions of the
researcher?
v. Grounded Theory Designs
A grounded theory design is a systematic procedure used to generate a
theory that explains, at a broad conceptual level, a process, an action,
or an interaction about a substantive topic.
When to Use Grounded Theory Research

To generate a theory rather than use one off the shelf
To explain a process, action, or interaction
When we want a step-by-step, systematic procedure
When we want to stay close to the data
Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a

participant-observer.
Describes the structures of experience as they present themselves to

consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions
from other disciplines

Types of Grounded Theory Designs
a) The Systematic Design (Strauss & Corbin, 1998)
Open coding: Properties and dimensionalized properties
Axial coding: Researcher selects one open coding category and
places it at the center as the central phenomenon and then
relates all other categories to it
Selective coding: Writing a theory based on the
interrelationship of the categories from axial coding
b) The Emerging Design (Glaser, 1992)
Grounded theory exists at the most abstract conceptual level
rather than the least abstract level as found in visual data
presentations such as a coding paradigm.
A theory is grounded in the data and not forced into
categories.
The four essential criteria are fit, work, relevance, and
modifiability.
c) Constructivist Design (Charmaz, 2000)
Philosophical position between positivist and postmodern
researchers
Theorist explains feelings of individuals as they experience a
phenomenon or process
Study mentions beliefs and values of the researcher and
eschews predetermined categories
Narrative is more explanatory, discursive, and probing the
assumptions and meanings for the individuals in the study

Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory Designs
A process approach: A sequence of actions and interactions

among people and events pertaining to a topic
Theoretical sampling: The researcher chooses forms of data
collection that will yield text & images useful in generating a
theory
Constant comparative data analysis:
An inductive data analysis:- generating & connecting
categories by comparing incidents in the data to other
incidents, incidents to categories, and categories to other
categories
A core category: A category that can become the theme that
describes or becomes the main theme of the process
Theory generation: An abstract explanation or understanding of
a process about a substantive topic grounded in the data
Memos: Notes the researcher writes throughout the research
process to elaborate on ideas about the data and the coded
categories
Conducting a Grounded Theory Study
Decide if a grounded theory design best addresses the research
problem
Identify a process to study
Seek approval and access
Conduct theoretical sampling
Code the data
Use selective coding and develop the theory
Validate your theory
Write a grounded theory research report

Evaluating a Grounded Theory Study
Isthere an obvious connection between the categories and the raw

data?
Is the theory useful as a conceptual explanation for the process
being studied?
Does the theory provide a relevant explanation of actual problems
and a basic process?
Can the theory be modified as conditions change or further data
are gathered?
Isa theoretical model developed or generated that conceptualizes a

process, action, or interaction?
Isthere a central phenomenon (or core category) specified at the

heart of the model?

Does the model emerge through phases of coding? (e.g., initial
codes to more theoretically oriented codes or open coding to axial
coding to selective coding)
Does the researcher attempt to interrelate categories?
Does the researcher gather extensive data so as to develop a
detailed conceptual theory well saturated in the data?
Does the study show how the researcher validated the evolving
theory by comparing it to the data, examining how the theory
supports or refutes existing theories in the literature, or checking
theory with participants?

Types of Mixed Approach
The mixed approach could be categorized into six d/t types based on the:
i. attention/emphasis/weight given to the ql & qt data
ii. sequence of collecting ql & qt data, &
iii. technique of data analysis

Combining, linking, or mixing the two forms of data :
during data collection,
between data collection and data analysis,
during data analysis, or
in the interpretation of a study.

These major models of mixed approach include:
i. Sequential Explanatory (QUAN Qual)

ii. Sequential Exploratory (QUAL Quan)
iii. Sequential Transformation

iv. Concurrent Triangulation (QUAN QUAL)
v. Concurrent Embedded
vi. Concurrent Transformation

i.Sequential Explanatory Design (QUAN- Qual)
Quantitative (qt) data is collected & analyzed first than the

qualitative (ql) data, & finally the two data be integrated together for
analysis
Phase I Phase II
The rationale for this approach is that since the qt data & results
provide a general picture of the research problem; ql data collection
is needed to further refine, extend, or explain the general picture.

Weight typically is given to the qt data, & the mixing of the data
occurs when the initial qt results informs the secondary ql data
collection.
Researcher uses the qualitative data result to assist in explaining &
interpreting the results of the quantitative findings.
A sequential explanatory design is typically used to explain &

interpret qt results by collecting & analyzing follow-up ql data.
It can be especially useful when unexpected results arise from a

quantitative study (Morse 1991).
The difficulty in using this design, however, is that the researcher

needs to determine what aspect of the quantitative results to follow up
on.
Also, this design is labor intensive, and it requires both expertise and
time to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.

ii. Sequential Exploratory Design (QUAL -Qual)
Phase I Phase II
Ql data is collected & analyzed first than the qt data, & finally
the two data integrated together for analysis
Morgan (1998) suggested that this design is appropriate to use

when testing elements of an emergent theory resulting from the ql
phase & that it can also be used to generalize ql findings to
different samples.

Similarly, Morse (1991) stated that one purpose for selecting this
approach is to determine the distribution of a phenomenon
within a chosen population.
This approach is appropriate to develop an instrument for qt
data collection since the existing instruments, variables,&
measures might not be known or inadequate or not available.
Weight is generally placed on the first phase, and the data are
mixed through being connected between the qualitative data
analysis and the quantitative data collection.
It focuses on initial exploration of the phenomenon & helps to get

the general picture, pattern & nature of the issue under study

The intent of the researcher is for the qt data results to refine &
extend the ql findings by:
testing out an instrument or the survey questionnaire developed

using the ql findings, or
by testing a typology or classification that developed from the

ql findings.
In both cases, the initial ql exploration leads to detailed,

generalizable results through the second qt phase.
It helps to use the qt data result to assist in explaining &

interpreting the results of the ql findings.
The length of time (to complete both data collection phases) &
analysis (to decide themes, to compare groups results, etc.,).

iii. Sequential Transformative Design
1st Phase 2nd Phase
ql data collection qt data collection &
& analysis & analysis
Finally
the two data
OR will be integrated
for interpretation
1st Phase 2nd Phase
qt data collection ql data collection

& analysis & analysis
Either of the ql or the qt data could be collected & analyzed

first, & finally the two data will be integrated for
interpretation.
Unlike the sequential exploratory & explanatory approaches, the
sequential transformative model has a theoretical perspective to
guide the study.
The aim of this theoretical perspective, whether it be a conceptual

framework, a specific ideology, or advocacy, is more important in
guiding the study than the use of methods alone.
Shares the strengths & weaknesses of the sequential explanatory

& sequential exploratory strategies

iV. Concurrent Triangulation Design (QUAN-QUAL)
Qt & ql data are collected in one phase concurrently, & then the
two databases are compared to determine if there is convergence,
difference or some combination.
It helps to compare the results from the qt & ql analyses to

determine if the two data bases yield similar or dissimilar results
Some authors refer to this comparison as confirmation,
disconfirmation, cross-validation, or corroboration (Morgan,
1998)
This approach helps to confirm, cross validate or corroborate findings
within a single study.
It is used as a means to offset the weakness inherent within one method
with the strength of the other method.
Ideally, the weight is equal b/n the two methods, but often in practice,
priority may be given to one or the other
The mixing in this approach, usually during interpretation or discussion
is to :
actually transform one type of data to the other type of data ( to merge)
to make them easy to be compared, or
integrate or compare the results of the two databases side by side in the
discussion.
This approach takes less time for data collection as compared to one of
the sequential approaches b/se in this case, both the qt & ql data are
gathered at one time
Creswell & Plano Clark (2007) state that, among the number of
limitations of this strategy: the following two are the major ones.
It requires great effort & expertise
The difficulty to compare the results of the two analyses using
data of different forms

v. Concurrent Nested/Embedded Strategy
Gives priority to one of the qttive or qltive methods that guide the
project for data collection, & integrates the two data during
analysis & interpretation.
It is where priority is given to the major form of data collection

(e.g., often QUAN) & the secondary form to support & to augment
or provide additional information to the primary form. (e.g., often
qual) of data collection.

Since the secondary data (qt or ql) is given less priority, it is
embedded or nested, within the predominant (qt or ql) data.
This embedding may mean that the secondary method addresses
a different question than the primary method
The mixing of the data from the two methods is often to integrate
the information &compare one data sources with the other,
typically accomplished in a discussion section of a study.
As its limitation, it may result in unequal evidence that may be
disadvantage when interpreting the data.

vi. Concurrent Transformative Design
The ql & qt data are collected simultaneously and be integrated
during analysis & interpretation.
The concurrent transformative approach is guided by the
researchers use of a specific theoretical perspective as well as the
concurrent collection of both qt & ql data.
This perspective can be based on ideologies such as critical theory,
advocacy, participatory research, or a conceptual or theoretical
framework.
This perspective is reflected in the purpose or research questions

of the study.

It is the driving force behind all methodological choices, such as defining
the problem, identifying the design & data sources, analyzing, interpreting,
& reporting results.
The choice of a concurrent model, whether it is triangulation or
embedded design, is made to facilitate the perspective.
Shares the specific strengths & weaknesses of both triangulation & nested
designs
For example:
The design may have one method embedded in the other so that diverse
participants are given a choice in the change process of an organization.
It may involve a triangulation of quantitative or qualitative data to best

converge information to provide evidence for an inequality of policies in an
organization.

Steps for Conducting a Mixed Methods Study
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Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study
Does the study employ both qt & ql methods?
Is there a rationale for why the researcher intends to mix the methods
in a single study & what will be gained in the process?
Does the researcher indicate the type of mixed methods study being
presented? Alternatively, can you identify the type from reading the
rationale or from a visual figure depicting the flow of the data
collection activities?
Does the researcher mention the priority given to quantitative and

qualitative data and the sequence of their use in the study?

Is the study feasible, given the data to be collected and the amount of
money, time, and expertise required
Have research questions been written for both qt & ql methods?
Have qt & qt data collection procedures been clearly identified?
Are the procedures for data analysis consistent with the type of
mixed methods study being presented?
Is the written structure of the study consistent with the type of mixed
methods study being presented?
Activity
As a professional, if you are asked to evaluate a given mixed
research done on educational issues, what do you think are the
points of emphasis?

The Research Problem & Research Hypothesis
The Research Problem

A research problem is an issue or concern that an investigator
presents & justifies in a research study.
Research starts with a question or a problem for which the
answer is not available.
In order to identify & define a research problem, a researcher
should know the sources & criterion of selecting it.
Sources of the Research Problem

Professional experience
Contact and discussion with people
Influence from theory (partial application of theories in to
practice)
Professional literature
Contemporary social and technological changes,
Abdu etc
Abagibe MoST-2016
Criterion/Prerequisites for Selecting a Research Problem
a. External criterion
It should be researchable
Relevant data should be available
Can be solved through the process of research
It should be significant & important (practical implementation of the
solution)
It should be new (no research has exhaustively conducted on it)
Its relevance and practical value
It should be timely (currently live issue)
b. Internal criterion
The problem should be feasible
The researcher should be competent & interested in problem i.e. the
researchers intellectual curiosity and drive.
Financial, time & administrative conditions should be convenient
In general, the research problem should be defined in such a way that
it reduces unnecessary &vague concepts.
Example: Why student participation in Oromia is less than that of
A.A?
It is vague b/se:
Class levels should be specified (KG, primary, Secondary,
TVET or College, etc)
Time should be indicated clearly
The topic should be that it builds on previous researches

For your topic couldnt be the first of its kind, duplication
should be avoided and replication might be useful for
expanding the validity of the previous findings.
Note: Even though a research problem is initiated by a felt

difficulty; all educational problems may not be researchable.

Defining the Research Problem
Having selected the research problem & ascertained its

soundness, the next logical step is to properly define it in such
away that it is amenable for investigation.
To define a problem means to specify it in detail & with precision.

Each question to be answered should be specified &
The limits of the study must be determined.
Advantages of defining research problem:
Helps you stick to your research objective

Reduce unnecessary and vague concepts
Discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant one
Specify the techniques and research methods to be pursued

The logical steps need to be used when defining a RP
i. State your problem in general way
This is possible only when you have a clear picture about your topic.
To do this:
Enter into discussion with those who you think have better exposure &
knowledge in the area.
Survey the available literature (Note that the techniques & approaches
employed in the previous work may be guiding to sharpen & formulate
your study)
ii. Provide the operational definitions to the concepts employed in your
research topic
For example
Factors Affecting the Participation of Teachers in Educational Research in
Ethiopia
In the proposed topic above you may for instance choose to define concepts
such as factors as variables influencing teachers, participation as the
involvement of teachers in educational research, etc your definition should
be contextual Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016
iii. Progressively sharpen your topic to a manageable level.
As you progressively inspect your proposed study you may eventually

realize that much remains broad and vague requiring sharpening for
clarity.
For example; regarding the above topic you may ask:

Is it possible for me to undertake this study at a national level?
Is the term research appropriate for the task at hand? (the term
educational research is too broad to address the planned study):-
So classroom research
Teachers working at what level?
Having made the necessary sharpening; now your topic may become
Factors Affecting the Participation of Senior Secondary School
Teachers in Conducting Classroom Research in East Shoa
Administrative Zone.
It is generally suggested that you should keep a balance between

generality and specificity to be feasible in your particular situation

The Research Hypothesis
What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an educated or calculated guess that shows the
likelihood of the direction where the solution to the problem lies.
Hypotheses are tentative generalizations about the nature of the
problem under consideration.
The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an

independent variable to a dependent variable .
Sources of Research Hypothesis
i. Personal experience
When using experiences the researcher may need to attend
the procedures below
Make observation
Think about the problem
Make additional observations
Formulate a hypothesis
ii. Reading in the area. Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016
Importance of Hypothesis
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages:

Represents specific objectives, which determine the nature of
the data needed to test the propositions.
Offers basis for selecting the samples, the research procedures
& the statistical analysis needed.
Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from
becoming too broad.
Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study.
Characteristics of Acceptable Hypotheses

In formulation of hypothesis the researcher has to set an
intelligent guess about the possible results of the study.
The hypothesis that the researcher sets should have the following
characteristics.
i. Researchable
ii. That has explanatory power,
iii. That can state the expected r/ship b/n variables
e.g. There is a positive r/ship b/n students self-concept
& their achievement in civics education
iv. A hypothesis must be testable
e.g. Polytechnic Educn Promotes All Rounded Devt of
Secondary School Students.
All rounded devt makes this hypothesis hard to test.
v. A hypothesis must be consistent with the existing body of

knowledge (known facts or theories)
e.g. Grade ten students with body weight of 50 kg & above
show better achievements in mathematics score than
those below 50 kgs.

But, it is clear that there is no body of knowledge that evidences
the r/ship b/n weight & Achievement in mathematics.
vi. Hypothesis must be stated as simple and concisely as possible.

Note that you may need several hypotheses in one study.
Dont state two or more aspects together.
Example: Consider the following
High school students who were taught English subject

through situational approach show better achievement in
reading & spoken skills of the language from those who
were taught through traditional grammar approach
Write separately for reading & spoken b/s the results
should be reported separately

Types and Forms of Stating the Research Hypothesis
A research hypothesis must be stated in a clear language so as to
indicate a relationship b/n the variables in the study.
Hypothesis can be determined in terms of how they are:
derived (ie, inductive Vrs deductive hypothesis) or
stated (Directional vrs Non directional/Null hypothesis).
a) Inductive Vrs Deductive Hypothesis

An inductive hypothesis is a generalization based on specific
observations.
Example: A researcher observes that in some eight grade class
rooms, students who take essay tests appear to show less
test anxiety than those who take multiple choice tests.
This observation could be the basis for an inductive
hypothesis.
A deductive hypothesis in contrast, is derived from theory &
provides evidence that supports, expands, or contradicts the
theory
b) Directional vs. Null hypothesis/ Non-Directional hypothesis
A non directional hypothesis states simply the relation or

difference that exists b/n variables.
It does not specify the direction of the change in the
dependent variable
Example: There will be a difference in test scores on the XYZ
achievement test for fifth-grade boys and girls.
A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of

relation or difference.
It specifies the direction of the change in the dependent
variable that the researcher predicts will take place
Example: Fifth-grade female students will have higher scores on the

XYZ achievement test than fifth-grade boys.

A directional hypothesis could be presented in +ve or _ve forms.
The non directional hypothesis predicts a difference between the
groups, whereas the directional hypothesis predicts not only the
difference but also met difference favors interactive media
instruction.
A directional hypothesis should be stated only if you have a basis
for believing that the results will occur in the stated direction.
Non directional and direction hypotheses involve different types of
statistical test of significance.
Finally a null hypothesis states that there is no significant relation
or difference between variables

Examples
Students whose number is small in a class than a student whose
number is large in the same class size will perform significantly
better in mathematics test. (+ve)
A student whose no is small in a class than students whose number
is large in the same class size will not perform significantly better
in mathematics test. (-ve)
There is no significant difference b/n students whose no is small in
class than students whose no is large in the same class size in
performing better in mathematics test. (null)
Note: Another possibility to state a research hypothesis is a

question form. When stated in this form, it is usually referred
as a basic/ research question.
Example: Do students whose no is small in a class than student

whose number is large in the same class size achieve better
results in mathematics test?

Guidelines for writing Research Hypotheses
State the variables in this order: independent (first position),
dependent (second position), & control (third position)
When comparing, explicitly state the groups; if variables are
related, specify the relationship between the variables
Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups.
State information about the participants and the site unless it
repeats information stated in your purpose statement
Activity: Write any two educational research problem & formulate

their corresponding hypotheses.

The Concept, Nature & Techniques of Sampling
Sampling: is a process of selecting a representative portion of a
population
Under sampling the researcher has to:
Explain the type of population, their number, and how and
from where they are selected.
Explain the sampling techniques and why they are selected
Ascertain the representativeness of the sample for the study
population
The Need for Sampling

To save time & effort required
To save costs in terms of money manpower

Characteristics of Good sampling
Result in small sample error

Is economical interims of time, energy & effort etc
Where bias can be controlled in better way
Types of Sampling Designs

Two major types
Probability/ Random Sampling Techniques , and
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability/Random Sampling Techniques

Based on random selection
Members have the same chance of being included in the sample

Types of Probability/Random Sampling
i. Simple Random Sampling
Each unit of population has a equal chance of being selected
involves selecting at random from sample frame
Comes to be problematic for large & unmanageable population
It employs population either of following mechanisms
Lottery system
coin flipping (for small number of population)
Random number method
Best method of choosing
Uses random digit table; E.g. 200 from 2000
Open the book at any page & select one column of nos.
Start any where in the column & read- four digit nos (b/c
2000 is a 4 digit no.)
Say the number is 011723 then we take 0117 or 117th is selected.
If the number is 91234, since 9123 is not in the list, we select
another no. instead of it
ii) Systematic Sampling
Is used when the population frame is a available
Procedures:
Get a complete list of population (N)
Determine the sample (n)
Determine the sampling fraction K= n/N
The 1st member of the sample is randomly selected from the list.
Then every kth member is selected until the required number is
obtained
E.g. , Population list = 5000 names = N;
Sample = 500 = n;
k = N/n = 5000/500 = 10
B/se randomly ordered lists are rarely available, systematic

sampling is rarely as good as random sampling.

SS involve the following steps:
i. Identify and define the population
ii. Determine the desired sample size
iii. Obtain a list of the population
iv. Determine k by dividing the size of the population by the
desired sample size.
v. Start at some random place in the population list. Close
your eye and stick your figure on a name
vi. Starting at that point, take every Kth name on the list until
the desired sample size is reached
vii. If the end of the list is reached before the desired sample
size, go back to the top of the list

iii) Stratified Sampling
Involves population of similar characteristics in to homogenous sub-
groups (strata)
Is appropriate if the study population involves several subgroups having

different characteristics to represent them in proportion of their size
Is a way to guarantee desired representation of relevant

subgroups within the sample.
The three points of emphasis here are

How to form strata (say; sex, age, socio-economic status educational
back ground, etc)
How to select members from each stratum using simple random or
systematic sampling, &
How many members from each stratum (sample size?)
involves aa choice of equal allocation or proportional allocation
(if strata have no equal population)

There are two types of stratified sampling
Proportional SST (selecting samples in proportion from each
stratum)
Non-proportional SST (selecting equal number of stratum
samples from each stratum)
Example- On Proportional SST
A population of teachers in a district can be divided by
educational level :
22% - primary school teachers
33% - secondary school teachers
45% - preparatory school teachers
The typical variables for proportional stratification include

demographic variables such as: race, gender, socio-economic
status, level of educn, etc.
Note: If no accurate infn, proportional sampling can not work.

Example- On non-proportional SST
Take the population of 300 students of grade 8 on two methods of
maths instruction (teaching mathematics by teacher and
computer).
Assume that the desired sample size is 45 in each of the two
methods.
The variable is ability and the desired subgroups are three levels
of ability i.e., high, average and low
As identified from the records; 300 students classified in to

three subgroups:
45= high ability
215 =average ability
40= low ability
(see the figure below)

Population 300
eighth Graders
classification
45( high 215 40 (low

ability) (average ability)
ability)
Random Random selection Random selection
selection 30 30
30
student students
students
Random assignment Random assignment Random assignment

15 15 15 15 15
15 students
students students students students
students methods
methods methods methods methods
methods
B A B A B
A

Steps in Stratified Sampling
The steps in stratified sampling are the same as that of simple
random sampling except that selection is from subgroups in the
population rather than the population as a whole .
Stratified sampling includes repeated simple random sampling:
one simple random sampling from each subgroup.
Stratifies sampling involves the following steps.
i. If identify & define the population
ii. Determine the desired sample size
iii. Identify the variable & subgroup (i.e., Strta) for which you
want to guarantee a specific representation.
iv. Classify all members of the popn as members of one of the
identified subgroups
v. Randomly select (using a table of random numbers) samples
from each subgroup.

iv) Cluster Sampling
Is a type of simple RS where each unit is a collection or a cluster
of sample
Involved when selection of individual members of population is
impractical or too expensive or b/c of large size of pop n.
Is used when the population is finite but very large

List of popn does not exist
Geographic distribution of popn is not convenient
Is a sampling where intact groups but not individuals are

randomly chosen.
Unlike stratified sampling (where every stratum is sampled).
It samples among groups or cluster
In it the exact sample size may not be known before
the sample is selected

Cluster sampling may be the only feasible method of selecting a
sample when the:
researcher is unable to obtain a list of all members of the
popn .
popn is very large or spread over a wide geographic area
Examples of cluster are classrooms, schools, city blocks,

hospitals, departments, stores, etc
Although the advantages of CS are evident, it also has several

drawbacks
High chance of selecting non representative sample than
the previously selected technique.
The smaller the sample since the more unlikely the selected
sample could be representative.

Steps In Cluster Sampling
Example:- Secondary school teachers Job satisfaction in Oromia
Region.
1. Identify and define the population - SS teachers
2. Determine the desired sample 500
3. Identify & define a logical cluster school
4. List all clusters comprising the population 100 ss schools in
the region
5. Estimate average member per cluster 50 teacher
6. Determine the number of clusters dividing the sample size by
estimated size of cluster; 500/50 = 10
7. Randomly select the needed number of cluster 10 out of 100
schools are randomly selected
8. Include all population in selected clusters- ( 10 schools, 50
teachers per school) the designed sample

v) Stage Sampling
Cluster sampling can be carried out in stages, involving selection of
clusters within clusters.
This process is called multi stage sampling.
District school class rooms (to sample class room)
Is an extension of cluster sampling
Is used for large scale surveys ( at national level)
In this case more than two clusters like Regions, Zones,
Woredas or schools can be used
Example: The opinion of merchants towards the free market

investment policy in Ethiopia
Stage 1. A sample of 5 regions could be selected randomly
Stage 2. 50 sample zones from all listed in 5 regions
Stage 3. 100 Woredas from all listed woredas in 50 zones
Stage 4 .70 merchants from all listed merchants in 100 woredas
Note: More than one sampling technique can be used in a single

research study
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
There is no way of estimating the chance that every element has

of being included in the sample
Amount the major reasons where random probability sampling
may not be appropriate
When the researcher has no access to the entire population
E.g. List of all ss graduates in Ethiopia.
When the generalization of the study may not be of great
importance. (when needed to solve immediate local problem
say school)
When there may be a limited number of sites/groups relevant
the study (say -6 teachers in primary school f researcher is
interested about teaching methodology in that school)
Difference b/n probability & non probability sampling
1. On how they are selected-probability sampling is based on sample

representative but non probability sampling is not
2. On the logic of their use-each population members is assumed to be
equivalent date source but in non probability sampling some
members are not
Generally in non probability sampling
The members are selected on researchers own judgment,
expertise or assumption based on prior identified criterion
the researcher should know their characteristics
Types of Non Probability Sampling
i. Accidental (haphazard or convenience) sampling

Is based on choosing the nearest individuals to serve as
respondents
Is used when selection is based on availability & willing
All available samples at that time & space are selected
It will be biased if no strong evidence indicating their
representative ness
Is the process of including whoever happens to be available at the
time.
E.g.,
Seeking volunteers and b) . studying existing groups just
because they are there
Because, the total population is composed of both
volunteers and non volunteers, the results of the study
based solely on volunteers are not likely genralizable to the
entire population.
When a teacher samples his class
ii. Availability Sampling
Uses available chance
When the required characteristics is small in no
e.g. Research in delinquency of boys/girls
iii. Purposive sampling
Sound judgment & suitable strategy is used for they are assumed
be rich in the information
Particularly appropriate for case studies
iv. Quota Sampling
When the population has different strata random sampling is
impractical (get all lists)
The group variable may be age, race, area, etc
Do not consider proportion but quota
Sampling Error and Sampling Bias
Sampling Errors
Sampling error is an expected chance variation in variables that occur
when a sample is selected from a population.
Sampling errors have their origin in sample selection and rise due the
fact that only a part of a population might be used to estimate the
population parameters.
Thus, among others, the most common sources of sampling errors
include:
Variation in the population,
The size of the sample,
Faulty selection of sample,
Some of the errors may be due to the defective sampling

techniques adopted for the selection of sample unit.,

Substitution:
If any difficulty arises in enumerating a particular sampling
unit included in the sample, the researcher usually substitutes
it with a convenient member of the population.
The characteristics of the substituted unit may be different
from those proposed by the original unit.
Faulty demarcation of sampling units:
Defective demarcation of sampling units may also lead to some
errors in sampling thus affecting generalization of the finding.
Improper choice of statistics for estimating the population
parameters may also be a source of error in sampling and
selection of the sample units.

Sampling Bias
In contrast to sampling error, which result random differences

b/n samples and populations, sampling bias is the sampling error
which is generally the fault of the researcher.
The two major sources of sampling bias are:
samples including only volunteers and
sampling based on available groups.
Researchers should be aware of source of sampling bias and do
their best to avoid it.
If you decide to continue with the study with full awareness of the
existing bias, such bias should be completely reported in the final
research report.
This disclosure allows any reader of the report to decide for

themselves how serious the bias is and how generalizable the
findings are.
Sample Size Determination
A sample size of quantitative research data should not be too:
small for it may not serve to achieve objectives and
large for it may call for huge cost and wastage of resources.
Size of the sample should be determined by a researcher keeping
in view the following points:
a) Nature of the universe

If the items of the universe are homogenous, a small sample
can serve the purpose.
If the are heterogeneous, a large sample would be required.
Technically, this can be termed as the dispersion factor.
b) Number of Classes proposed

If many class-groups (group & subgroups) are to be formed, a
large sample would be required.

c) The Nature of Study
If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the
sample should be small.
d) Type of Sampling:
Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the
size of the sample.
e) Standard of accuracy & acceptable confidence level:

If the standard of accuracy or the level of precision is to be
kept high we shall require relatively larger sample.
f) Availability of finance:
In practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of
money available for the study purposes.
[
This factor should be kept in view while determining the size

of the sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of
sampling estimates

g) Other Considerations:
Nature of units,
Size of the population,
Availability of trained investigators,
The conditions under which the sample is being conducted,
The time available for completion of the study; are a few other
considerations to which a researcher must pay attention while
selecting the size of the sample.

There are two alternative approaches for determining the size of
the sample.
i. Specify the precision of estimation desired
This approach is capable of giving a mathematical solution, and
as such is a frequently used technique of determining n.
The limitation of this technique is that it does not analyze the
cost of gathering information vis--vis the expected value of
information.
ii. Use Bayesian statistics to weigh the cost of additional information

against the expected value of additional information.
This approach is theoretical optimal, but it is seldom used
because of the difficulty involved in measuring the value of
information.
Hence, we shall mainly concentrate here on the first approach.

In general, the minimum sample size depends on the type of
research involved.
Some researchers cite a sample size of 30 as guidance for CR,
CCR and True Experimental Research.
For CR at least 30 participants are needed to establish the
existence or non existence of a r/n.
For CCR and True Experimental Researches a minimum of
30 participants in each group is recommended, although in
some case, it is difficult to attain this number.
For survey research, it is common to sample 10-20 % of the
population although, this guideline can be misleading.
Beside these, for other qt research methods including survey

research , statistical techniques and related software are used to
determine the sample size.
Different formulae ??????????????????

However, the following general rules are helpful in determining
sample size:
The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage
of population required to get a representative sample.
For smaller populations, say N=100 or fewer, there is little

point in sampling; survey the entire population.
If the population size is around 1,500, 20% should be
sampled.
Beyond a certain point (about N=5,000) the population size

is almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 will be
adequate.

Data Collection & Standardization
Data Collection
Types of Data Sources

Information sources are usually classified in to two broad categories.
These are primary and secondary sources of data.
Primary Sources:
These are eyewitness accounts.
Include
Documents such as court records & statistics, etc
Remains or Relics such as Fossils, skeletons, tools, weapons, etc.,
Oral Testimony obtained through interview
Secondary Sources
These are accounts of events that were not actually witnessed by the
reporter.
History textbook, news papers, reports of an event not written by
eyewitness, biographies, etc.,
Designing Data Collecting Tools
This pertains to deciding & explaining appropriate and reliable

instruments of data collection.
The Most Commonly Used Data Gathering Instruments
Qt Research Method Ql Research Method
Questionnaire Observation
Observation Interview
Interview Focus Group Discussion
Focus Group Discussion Document Analysis
Document Analysis

Questionnaire
Questionnaires can be used to measure
Past behaviour
Attitudes, and
Respondent characteristics.
Components of a Questionnaire(5)
Identification data: The researchers address
The request for co-operation: is an opening statement designed
to enlist the respondents help regarding the questionnaire.
The investigator or the inquiry organization
The purpose of the study &the time required to
complete the questionnaire
The confidentiality when filling the questionnaire.

The instructions: Refer to comments to the respondents about
how to use the questionnaire.
The classification data: concerns the characteristics of
respondent.
The information sought forms: these are the major portions of
the questionnaire.
Types of Questionnaire
I Open ended Questionnaire:

Advantages & Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions
ii. Close-ended Questionnaire
Advantage & Disadvantages of close-ended questions

Measuring Responses to questionnaires
A questionnaire could be measured using different types of scales.

Among others, the commonly used measuring scales in
educational research include:
Likert scale;
rating scale;
responses such as: Like (L), Dislike(D) or Indifferent (I);
responses such as Yes, No or Not sure; etc.

Interview
is used to explore experiences, opinions, feelings, & knowledge of
participants
In-depth interview is the most common qualitative method used for

learning about the perspectives of individuals. It also helps to
address sensitive topics.
Interviews are usually conducted face-to-face, & involve one

interviewer & one participant. But there are telephone & e-mail
interviews
On average, in-depth interviews last from one to two hours.
Interview data consist of tape recordings & interviewers notes.
Interview is classified as structured, semi structured and

unstructured interviews.

To be an effective interviewer:
Be familiar with research documents;
Practice interviewing;
Practice using the equipment;
Develop rapport, build your skill;
Ask one question at a time;
Avoid leading & yes/no question;

Advantages &Disadvantages of the Interviews
Advantages
Tendency to have a freer exchange
Can probe potentially complex motivations and behavior
Easier to attach a particular response to a respondent
Disadvantages
Qualified interviewers are expensive

Length and expense of interview often leads to small sample
Subjectivity and fuzziness

Observation Method.
Observation involves detailed descriptions of peoples activities,
behaviors, actions, interactions, & organizational processes.
Participant observation helps for collecting data on naturally
occurring behaviors in their usual contexts. It takes place in
community settings. It could be carried out individually, or in a
team.
Observation may generate new understandings that werent
included in the research question.
Advantages
We see what people actually do

May avoid interviewer bias

Disadvantages of participant observation
Time consuming ( requires staying long time in the field site

so not appropriate for most applied research studies)
Difficulty of documenting data obtained in the act of
participating & observing
Subjective exercise ( so better to rely on describing what we
observe than interpreting).
Detailed field notes are widely the data obtained from
participant observation.
No information on motives attitudes or intentions
Time-consuming and expensive

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
In this method one or more researchers & several participants (6
to12 with similar background)meet as a group to discuss a given
research topic.
FGD sessions are usually tape-recorded, & some times video
taped. One researcher (the moderator) leads the discussion by
asking open-ended questions, & a second researcher takes detailed
notes.
is effective in helping researchers learn the social norms of a

community, as well as the range of perspectives (variety) that exist
with in the population.

Focus groups are not the best method for acquiring information on
highly personal or socially sensitive topics.
Focus group sessions usually last from one to two hours & should
include time for participants to take a break.
Behavioral techniques for building rapport in focus groups: Be

friendly, Smile, make eye contact with participants, speak in a
pleasant tone of voice, use relaxed body language, incorporate
humor where appropriate, & Be patient (dont rush).

Advantages & disadvantages of FGD
Advantages
Richness of data
Versatility
Ability to study special respondents
Children
Professionals (doctors, lawyers)
Direct involvement of managers (vividness)
Easily understandable
Flexibility in covering topics
May uncover unanticipated ideas that are important
Can define constructs of importance
Gives flesh and connectedness to real consumers/people
Can show them designs, have them try out prototypes
Group synergy

Disadvantages
Lack of generalizability (small sample size)
High selection bias
Might be misused
focus group is not a replacement for quantitative research
Subject to Interpretation
Cost-per-respondent is high (compared to survey)
Results dependent on skill of moderator in running the group
and analysis
may be the response in the moment which may change over
time
strong personalities are a hazard
professional respondents

Standardization of Data Gathering Instruments
Pre-Test of Data Gathering Instruments

a) Validity of data gathering Instruments
Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is
supposed to measure.
The validity of data gathering instruments could be judged by
experts or professionals regarding the issue under the study.
As regards the validity test, Gay et al.,(2009). State:
Content validity test is conducted for it helps in measuring
whether the items in the data collection tools are relevant to
the measurement of the intended content area
Item validity, how well the test samples the total content area
being tested-sampling validity, and
The degree to which a test appears to measure what it
claims to measure-face validity

b) Reliability of data gathering instruments
Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures
whatever it is measuring.
It tells about the consistency of scores produced; and
appropriateness of a test.
It could be checked through what is known as a pilot-test using

statistical instruments like Cronbatches Alpha Test.

Components of a Research Proposal
A research proposal is a systematic blue print that brings to
focus the preliminarily planning that will be needed to fulfil the
purpose of the proposed study.
More specifically, the research proposal
Forces you think through every aspect of the study
Facilitates the evaluation of the intended study by you and
others
Provides a guide for the actual condition of the study.
Reduces the probability of costly mistakes for it is a plan of a
research work.
Even though there are different forms of writing a research
proposal, the following are some of the elements that require
inclusion in it.

A) Cover page
The title of the research proposal should incorporate the
following issues.
A good research title should be short, accurate and concise
Avoid too length titles.
Note that the proposed study cannot be fully presented in
the title
The title shouldnt be too brief.
A study should be worded in such a way that it could give
sufficient information about the nature of the study.
It should make the central objectives and variable clear to the
reader (reviewer)

B) The Inside part
1. Introduction
The introduction section should deal with the background of the
study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, significant
of the study, delimitation of the study, limitation of the, definition
of basic terms and organization of the study.
1.1. Background of the study

The background provides some general theoretical basis or
justification for conducting research and focuses on:
What is the context of the research at hand from global to
local level
What policies exist pertaining to the issue under study (if
any)
What researches have been conducted and findings obtained
in the area of you study.
What is the general goal of study

1.2. Statement of the Problem
Why is the study being conducted?
What causes the study
What really is the problem?
What is its magnitude?
What is its current impact on the study area?
What is its future consequence?
How you elaborate the problem by assessing the local researches
done on the related area
Under the statement of the problem, you need to justify the need
for the study and also develop hypotheses or key research
questions, which may help show the direction of the whole
exercise.

1.3. Objectives of Study
The statements of objectives are the direct reflection of your
hypotheses/basic questions or are simply the operationalization of
the answers to the formulated hypothesis.
It refers to what you are going to do in your research.
Objectives could be stated in the form of general & specific
objectives.
General Objective
It should describe the kind of knowledge the study is
expected to obtain.
It should give a clear notion of what is to be described,
determined, identified and compared in relation to the
hypothesis
Specific Objectives
Try to give the preliminary views of the research design by
disaggregating the general objective in logical way

1.4. Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Framework
A Framework is described as the abstract, logical structure of

meaning that guide the development of the study.
All frameworks are based on the identification of key concepts and the
relationships among those concepts.
Framework can be derived from related concepts (conceptual) or

existing theories (theoretical).
The terms conceptual framework and theoretical framework are

sometimes used interchangeably, but they have different meanings
Their overall purpose is to make research findings meaningful and

generalizable. Theories and conceptual models help to stimulate
research and the extension of knowledge by providing both direction
and impetus.
Theoretical Framework
Theories are purposely created and formulated, never discovered;
they can be tested but never proven.
The explanation on the theoretical framework concerns the r/ship b/n
two or more variables or phenomena
It is more of formal & used for studies based on existing theories.
It is derived from specific concepts and propositions that are induced or
deduced.
Its importance is to identify the starting point of the research problem
and to establish the vision to which the problem is directed

It determines and defines the focus and goal of the research problem.
Its purposes is to:
test theories
make research findings meaningful and generalizable
establish orderly connections between observations and facts
predict and control situations &
stimulate research
Theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently

handled in quantitative and qualitative endeavors

1. In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward
the beginning of the plan for a study.
The objective is to test or verify theory.
One thus begins the study advancing a theory, collects data to test it,
and reflects on whether the theory was confirmed or disconfirmed by
the results in the study.
The theory becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing

model for the research questions or hypotheses for the data collection
procedure (Creswell, 1994)
2. In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends

on the nature of the investigation.
In studies aiming at grounded theory, for example, theory and

theoretical tenets emerge from findings.
Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to test or verify theory,

hence in these cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative
efforts, should be identified and discussed early on.
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is a tool researchers use to guide their

inquiry; it is a set of ideas used to structure the research, a sort of
map that may include the research question, the literature review,
methods and data analysis.
It is structured from a set of broad ideas and theories that help a

researcher to properly identify the problem they are looking at,
Most academic research uses a conceptual framework at the outset

because it helps the researcher to clarify his research question and
aims.

It consists of concepts that are placed within a logical and
sequential design; represents less formal structure and used for
studies in which existing theory is inapplicable or insufficient;
based on specific concepts and propositions, derived from
empirical observation and intuition; may deduce theories from a
conceptual framework.
The Purposes of Conceptual Framework is to:

clarify concepts and propose relationships among the
concepts in a study;
provide a context for interpreting the study findings;
explain observations;&
encourage theory development that is useful to practice

1.5. Significance of the Study (Application of Results)
Identify the beneficiaries of the study, justify the importance and
urgency of the study as to how the results of the study will be
useful to them
Demonstrate why it is worth of time, effort and expense in
carrying out the proposed study.
Some of the points needed to be stressed in the justification
include:
A wide time gap b/n the earlier study & the present one.
Need for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will
necessitate for replicating the study
When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself

the following questions.
What will results mean to the theoretical framework that
framed the study?
What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the
findings?
What will the results mean to the practicing educator?
Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?
Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?
Will results influence educational policy decisions?
What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed

research?
How will results of the study be implemented, and what

innovations will come about?
The need for the present investigation could be to help address
those areas that remain untouched or inadequately treated.
Lack or shortage of information about the problem
Academic, policy & awareness significance of the study
Note: Most common benefits of a research study could be for

professional literature, practice & policy implications
1.5. Delimitations of the Study
Your research proposal should indicate that the study is delimited
both in scope and depth to manageable size including tangible
reasons. Specifically, the boundary of the study should be set with
regard to.
The relevant areas which the research effort will not include
but to which conclusion will be confined.
The procedural treatment including sampling procedures, the
technique of data collection and analysis, the development of
measuring tools and their use in the study.
More focus on Conceptual and area delimitation
Note: Based on the nature if the research problem, the delimitation
of a given research activity could comprise all or some of the
following: Area, issue and time delimitations

1.6. Limitation of the Study (Optional at Proposal Stage)
The fact that your research is properly designed does not
guarantee that it is free from constraints.
The limitations (uncontrollable variables that confront
investigation & affect conclusions) surrounding you study and
within which your conclusion may be confined will be of different
sources.
The possible sources of limitation include:
Practical weaknesses in the methodologies you adapted
Lack of access to the right data
Poor choice or delivery of instruments
Sampling restriction
Lack of up to date literature in the area
Unusual time borne situation in the study site.
Note: The compromises you make as a result of the constraints
shouldnt be those results in to completely change the
proposed study. Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016
1.7. Definition of Basic Terms used in the Study
In this part of the study, definitions to the basic concepts
(technical terms, words or phrases) having special meanings
employed in the study need to be defined operationally by the
researcher or with the help of Authorities (books, dictionaries,
references, etc)
1.8. Organization of the study (Optional at Proposal Stage)
The researcher has to organize systematically how the study is

to be presented. Among other things, he/she has to explain how
the study is divided in to various chapters.

2. Review of the Related Literature
Focuses on what has been done and what needs to be done
What is Literature?
Every relevant and credible material written on the research
topicboth in hard and soft copies:
Books
Journal articles
Periodical articles
Newspaper articles
Historical records
Government reports
Theses and dissertations and
Other online resources

In a nutshell it is a process of documenting, tracking, reviewing
and organizing information, perspectives and discourses of
relevant and related sources to provide critical analysis in-depth
evaluation, and sound summary of a body of knowledge to
establish the status, scope, and gaps of a research theme.
The Purpose of Literature Review
To demonstrate scholarly ability and preparedness to identify
relevant and credible information and construct existing
knowledge
To evaluate, analyze and synthesize ideas, perspectives, and
discourses in line with the concepts of research interest
To identify 'gap' in previous research and create a new
frontier of 'research space'
To exhibit the knowledge domain in the research area
To establish a rationale for a research study

The review of the literature provides the background and context
for the research problem.
It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the
writer is knowledgeable about the area (Wiersma, 1995).
The literature review accomplishes several important things.

It shares with the reader the results of other studies that
are closely related to the study being reported (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 1990).
It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the

literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior
studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
It provides a framework for establishing the importance of
It frames the problem earlier identified.

Therefore as a researcher you should:
demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive
grasp of the field and are aware of important recent
substantive and methodological developments.
delineate the jumping-off place for your study. How will

your study refine, revise, or extend what is now known?
avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the
area or that what has been done is too extensive to permit
easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as
indications that the writer is not really familiar with the
literature.
be backed up with your critical analysis of its contents.

3. The Research Design and Methodology
Under this section the following major issues should be included
3.1 The Research Method
Describe in general terms the method to be employed to achieve
the study objectives& justify why this method is used.
The method could be quantitative, qualitative or the mixed
approach could be used
The method section typically includes a description of the
experimental design for experimental research, whereas the
design and procedure section may be combined in a plan for a
descriptive study.
It is concerned with data collection
It is different from research design which is:
Is logical structure of the inquiry.

Is a logical takes undertaken to ensure that the evidence
collected enables us to answer the research question in a
convincing way.
It indicates the basic structure and goals of the study.
Are evaluated against their ability to draw relatively
unambiguous conclusions or to select between rival plausible
hypothesis.
It indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer
every question or to test every hypothesis illustrated in the
Questions/Hypotheses section.
1. the variables you propose to control and how you
propose to control them, experimentally or statistically,
and
2. the variables you propose to randomize, and the nature
of the randomizing unit (students, grades, schools,
etc.).

3.2 Sources of Data
Discuss the primary and secondary sources of data.
For the primary data identify the population from which
data will be collected (Their type, their number, how &

from where they are selected)
3.3 Sample & Sampling Techniques
Explain the sampling technique that should be employed and
discuss why they are selected
Determine the sample & discuss the representativeness of the
selected Sample
3.4 Data Gathering Tools

Discuss the different data gathering tool and their types to
be employed
3.5 Procedure of Data Collection

Describe the steps to be followed in collecting data from the
field
3.6 Method of Data Analysis
Describe the different data analysing tools and explain the
reasons why these tools have been selected

Ethical Considerations
Ethics is generally a set of rules, principles and

conventions that outline socially acceptable
behaviors and social members actions
i. Unbiased Attitude
The researcher shall approach all assignments with an unbiased
attitude & strive to gather evidence fairly & accurately .

ii. Informed Consent
Providing a detailed clarification of the researchs purposes for
research informants

iii. Voluntary Participation
Researcher must ensure that participation in the study is on
voluntary basis.
However, voluntary participation sometimes conflicts with the
demand for high response rate since low return rate can be
seen as response bias
iv. Equal Treatment
The researchers shall be alert to the sensitivities of groups and
individuals in terms of race, creed, gender, national origin,
disability & other related issues when conducting researches
v. Respect for Privacy

Avoidance of participants embarrassment and discomfort
about study and question.

vi. Safeguarding the Anonymity of Participants & the confidentiality
of Data
Refers to not identifying the participants on the basis of response & confidentiality of
data
vii. Plagiarism
Presenting and using another person's published or unpublished work, including
theories, concepts, data, source material, methodologies or findings, including graphs
and images, as one's own, without appropriate referencing and, if required, without
permission is considered as an illegal approach in research works.
viii. Accuracy of report and results

Because advancements in academic fields involve dignity, honesty and openness; the
researcher must take the responsibility of reporting data and result that are the most
accurate.
Bibliography
Appendices

Data Organization, Analysis, Interpretation & Research
Reporting the Research Results
Data should be presented in tables and figures, as well as in narrated

forms and should be clear and self-explanatory.
Basically, the methods of data analysis depends on the type of the data
collected, the nature of the basic questions and the type of data
collected
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data analysis should follow the steps below.
The data should be organized & coded to suit for analysis

Describe the different data analysing statistical tools and explain the
reasons why these tools have been selected
After selecting appropriate statistical tools , you can apply software
statistical programs like SPSS, STATA, etc and process the data.
Narrate the idea of the basic questions/hypotheses using the
statistical results & identify the findings
Discuss the major findings by supporting with the facts from the
literature
Then after, state the conclusions & recommendations
Note: If you have qualitative data you should state the conclusions
& recommendations after analysing the qualitative data
together with/separately based on the type of your design.

Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is analyzed following the steps below
Reading- becoming familiar with the data & identifying potential

themes.
Describing- examining the data in depth to provide detailed descriptions
of the setting, participants, & activity.
Classifying- code the pieces of data, transcribe, grouping them in to
categories & themes, and discuss as per the basic questions/hypotheses
set
We may also use computer soft wares if we are analyzing large amounts
of data (e.g., more than 500 pages of field notes & transcripts) &
adequately trained

The three common & popular qualitative analysis software packages are:
Nvivo 7.0 ( for multi media data);
The Ethnograph V5.08 (for analyzing text files); &
Hyper RESEARCH 2.7 ( for text, graphics, audio & video
sources).
Discuss the major findings by supporting with the facts from the literature
Then after, state the conclusions & recommendations
Note: If you have quantitative data you should state the conclusions &
recommendations after analysing the quantitative data together
with/separately based on the type of your design
Data from Mixed Approach Design

Since how to analyze the Ql & qt data have already been discussed, here,
you should simply organize the analyzed data following the steps set in the
type of the mixed approach you selected for the study.
Points to be Noted when Giving Conclusions &
Recommendations on the Study
When drawing conclusions, simply try to answer the following question .
What is the logical result of the major findings?
When you provide recommendation/s:
Use words/phrase like: it seems that, it is suggested that, ___

needs to be____, etc.,
Dont use terms like should, must, etc.,
You should also check that whether you have fully answered all
the basic question/hypotheses
Dont include recommendations on ideas/issues you have-not

treated in the study

The Research Report Format

I
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Research Methods

By Abdu Abagibe (Ph.D)

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

What experience do you have in conducting research?

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

This training is designed to enhance research skill &

By the end of the training, participants will be able to:

When does this start?

From where do they get answers?

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

However, the systematic study/scientific method in its process

What is meant by the tem research?

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific

is a quest for knowledge and understanding

Research is a process of steps used to collect & analyze infn so as to

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

A variable is an event, a characteristic or an attribute that can be:

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

b) Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Here reinforcement could be taken as a qt variable, b/se it is

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

i) Variables that can be controlled

Note: One important characteristic of a good research design is to

By controlling effect of extraneous variable(s)

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Independent Extraneous Dependent

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Qt, Ql, & Mixed Research

II. Based on purpose/function

Applied Research &Basic/Fundamental Research

I. Classification of Research by Method

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

It helps to explore & understand the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a

It seeks to probe deeply in to the research setting to obtain in-depth

It does not necessarily accept the view of a stable world,

All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context,

What differences exist b/n Ql & Qt research methods?

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Why Mixed Method? (Rationale for the Design)

obtain a variety of infn on the same issue,

Multiple angles argument

When both qt & ql data, together, provide a better understanding of

To incorporate a qualitative component into an otherwise

To build from one phase of a study to another

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

a. Collecting qt (Numeric) & ql (Text)data)

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

ii. Applied research

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

It may be formative (that occurs during the design &

This method includes:

Survey Research - describe the existing/current condition,

Abdu Abagibe MoST-2016

Perception of the society on the quality of secondary school education

Attitude of Manufacturing Industries in Utilizing Indigenous