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) analysis
Types of measurement
Nominal Scale: categorical data, such as
hair colour (Brown, Blonde, Red)
Ordinal Scale: ranked data, such as good,
better, best
Interval data: continuous data with equal
intervals between points which may not
have an absolute zero, such as temperature
in Celsius and Fahrenheit
Ratio data: similar to interval data, but has
a true zero, such as length or mass
Types of measurement
Nominal Scale: categorical data, such as
hair colour (Brown, Blonde, Red)
Ordinal Scale: ranked data, such as good,
better, best
Interval data: continuous data with equal
intervals between points which may not
have an absolute zero, such as temperature
in Celsius and Fahrenheit
Ratio data: similar to interval data, but has
a true zero, such as length or mass
Chi-square ( ) analysis
2
Reward
Dance? Food Affection Total
Yes 28 48 76
No 10 114 124
Total 38 162 200
Reward
Dance? Food Affection Total
Yes Obs 28 48 76
Exp 14.44 61.56
No Obs 10 114 124
Exp 23.56 100.44
Total 38 162 n = 200
The next step is to calculate the cell contribution to chi-square
Calculation of contribution to Chi-Sq
Chi-Sq = (Obs-Exp)2/Exp
Reward
Dance? Food Affection Total
Yes Obs 28 48 76
Exp 14.44 61.56
2
12.73 2.99
No Obs 10 114 124
Exp
2
23.56 100.44
7.80 1.83
Total 38 162 n = 200
Total Chi-Sq = 12.73+2.99+7.8+1.83 = 25.35
Degrees of freedom = (r-1)(c-1) = (2-1)(2-1) = 1
Summary of analysis
(1) = 25.35, P < 0.01
2
observed expected
Standardized residual
expected
Standardized residuals
Reward
Dance? Food Affection Total
Yes Obs 28 48 76
Exp 14.44 61.56
2
12.73 2.99
St Residual 3.568 1.728
No Obs 10 114 124
Exp
2
23.56 100.44
7.80 1.83
St Residual 2.794 1.353
Total 38 162 n = 200
Interpretation of Standardized residuals
Each of the standardized residuals is a z-score
Thus, if the value is outside 1.96, then P<0.05
if the value is outside 2.58, then P<0.01
if the value is outside 3.29, then P<0.001
12.73 2.99
St Residual 3.568 1.728
P<0.001 P>0.05
No Obs 10 114 124
Exp
2
23.56 100.44
7.80 1.83
St Residual 2.794 1.353
P<0.01 P>0.05
Total 38 162 n = 200
Revision of z-scores and normal distribution
Each of the standardized residuals is a z-score
Z-scores are important because they are related to specific
percentage values of the standard normal distribution curve
Normal distribution
68.26%
95.44%
99.73%
90 60 30
60 40 20
30 20 10
Here the patterning of the data is constant across all rows and
columns.
Because the patterning is constant the expected frequencies
are the same as the observed frequencies.
Chi-square ( 2
) analysis
Obs 90 60 30 180
Exp 90 60 30
Obs 60 40 20 120
Exp 60 40 20
Obs 30 20 10 60
Exp 30 20 10
180 120 60 n = 360
Chi-square ( 2
) analysis
Now consider this table;
135 60 30
60 40 20
30 20 10
180 60 30
60 40 20
30 20 10
2 2 1
Obs 60 40 20 120
Exp 72 32 16
2
2 2 1
Obs 30 20 10 60
Exp 36 16 8
2
1 1 0.5
270 120 60 n = 450
Assumptions of Chi-square
Each person, item or entity contributes to one cell
only therefore not appropriate for repeated
measures design experiments.
Expected frequencies > 5.
For large tables it is acceptable to have up to 20% of
expected frequencies below 5.
In very large tables no expected frequency <1