Chapter 3

Structure in Schools

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Model of Bureaucracy
Max Weber (1947)
Division of Labor
Division of labor leads to specialization and specialization promotes expertise.
Impersonal Orientation

Decisions based on facts, not feelings or biases.

Hierarchy of Authority - Systems of superiors and subordinates

Hierarchy promotes disciplined compliance and coordination.

Rules and Regulations

Formalization ensures stability and uniformity of behavior.

Career Orientation

Career orientation-promotion according to seniority, achievement, or both

Efficiency

Bureaucracy maximizes rational decision-making and administrative efficiency

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Critique of Webers Model
Function Characteristic Dysfunction

Expertise Division of Labor Boredom

Rationality Impersonal Orientation Lack of morale

Compliance and Hierarchy of Authority Communication

Coordination blocks
Continuity and Rules and Regulations Rigidity and goal
Stability displacement
Incentive Career Orientation Conflict between
achievement and
seniority
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
 Functions and Dysfunctions
of Rules
Functions Dysfunctions

Explication Reinforce Apathy

Screening Goal displacement
Legitimate Punishment Create legalism
Leeway Indulgency

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Informal Organization

Informal organization is the spontaneous development of a social

structure and culture within a formal organization--it is a shadow
organization.
How does the informal organizations develop?

Activities, interactions, and sentiments form the following:

Informal structure
Division into cliques
Informal norms
Personal relations
Informal communication; the grapevine
Informal leadership

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Formal vs. Informal Struct

Formal Informal System

System
Informal structure
Hierarchy Division into cliques

Division of Labor Informal norms

Formalization Personal relations

Impersonality Grapevine

Chain of
command

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Other Criticisms of Bureaucracy
1. Dual Structure
Is the guiding principal of bureaucracy.

Authority based on expertise or based on rules and discipline?

2. Feminist Critique
Does bureaucracy perpetuate male values at the expense of female ones?

Hierarchy, impersonality, independence, rationality, competition, centralized

VS.
Egalitarianism, personalism, dependence, emotionality, cooperation, decentralized

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Summary of Criticisms
On Bureaucracy
1. Dysfunctional consequences not considered.
2. Informal organization neglected.
3. Conflict between administration based on
expertise and administration based on disciplined
compliance.
4. Feminist Critique

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Brainstorming
How Activity
do members formally communicate? Informall
What formal processes drive decision making?
List informal behind the scene practices.
What are dominant sources of formal power in your
school?
Who has informal power in your school? Why?
What are the formal hiring procedures?
What is the informal practice?
Who sets the formal goals? Informal goals?

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Centralization: Enabling and C
What is Centralization?
Centralization is the locus of control for decision making--the hierarchy.

Two kinds of centralization:

Hindering

Structure makes it difficult for teachers to do

their
work; it hinders professional activity.
Enabling

Structure facilitates the work of teachers; it

enables
teachers to make professional decisions.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Formalization: Enabling and C
What is Formalization?
Formalization is the formal system of rules, regulations, procedures, and policies .

Two kinds of Formalization:

Coercive

A rigid set of procedures that punishes and

attempts to force compliance.
Enabling

A flexible set of best practices that enables one to

deal more effectively with inevitable problems.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Enabling and Hindering
Structures
Enabling Organization Hindering Organization
Enabling Hierarchy Hindering Hierarchy
Enabling Rules Coercive Rules
Use two-way &Procedures
Impose top-down
communication
View problems as communication
View problems as
opportunities
Seek mutual solutions constraints
Support differences Force consensus

Practice openness Suspicious of

Embrace the differences

Be cautious and closed
unexpected
Correct mistakes Fear the unexpected
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Hall on Structure
Types of Rational Organizations
-Hall(1962)
Bureaucratic Pattern
Hierarchy of Authority

Rules for Incumbents

Procedural Specifications

Impersonality

Professional Pattern
Technical Competence

Specialization

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Formal Structure in Schools

Professional Pattern
High Low

High Weberian Authoritarian

Bureaucratic
Pattern
Low Professional Chaotic

Types of School Structures

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

redicted Evolutionary Change
In Structure
Chaotic Authoritarian Weberian Professional
Organization Organization Organization Organization

Stable Environment

Turbulent Environment

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Discussion Question
Use the four types of bureaucracies defined by the
Hall to analyze the how to change from one structure
to another.

For example, how does one move a school from a

Chaotic
Structure to a Weberian One?
Can one go directly to a Weberian Structure or does
one first
go to an Authoritarian Structure before a Weberian
one?
Which is the ideal structure for schools? Which is
better a
Weberian Structure or a Professional Structure?
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Defend
Mintzberg on Structure
Strategic
Apex

Techno- Middle Support

Structure Line Staff

Operating Core

Five Basic Parts of Structure

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
 Control or
Coordinating
Mechanisms-
Coordinating mechanisms are the fundamental
Mintzberg
means organizations use to monitor and control
work. These mechanisms are the glue the hold
the organization together.

Mutual Adjustment--informal
communication
Direct Supervision--personal command
Standardization of Work--program
directions
Standardization of Output--specify the
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
 Five Combinations and
Five Basic Structures
(Mintzberg)
Key Part Control Mechanism Organiza
Strategic Apex.Direct SupervisionSimple Stru
Technostructure. Stand. of Work..Machine Bu
Operating Core.. Stand. of Skills...Profession
Middle Line. Stand. Of Outputs.Divisional F
Support Staff.. Mutual AdjustmentAdhocracy

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 DiscussionQuestion
Apply Mintzbergs Framework to
Schools:

What is the ideal structure for

elementary schools?
For secondary schools?
Which coordinating mechanism(s) are
most appropriate for controlling
teachers?
What is the most important structural
part of the school?
DiscussW. K.the structure
Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011 that really exits
 Loose Coupling
Loose couplings are structural connections among the elements that are tied
together loosely and in some cases disconnected. E.g,. The administration of a
school as little influence in what is happening in the classroom. Consider
universities.

Some schools are tightly coupled and others are loosely coupled.

Bureaucracies tend to be tightly coupled.

Professional organizations tend to be more loosely coupled.

Tight coupling promotes limits discretion of teachers.

Loose coupling enhances discretion of teachers.

To what extent is you school loosely coupled? Analyze the tight and loose
couplings in your school? Does the structure need tightening or loosening?

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Professional and Bureaucratic Orientations

Professional Orientation Bureaucratic Orientation

Sources of Compatibility between Orientations
Expertise Expertise
Objective perspective Objective perspective
Impersonal approach Impersonal approach
Service to clients Service to the organization

Sources of Conflict between Orientations

Colleague reference group Hierarchical orientation

Autonomy in decision making Disciplined compliance

Self-imposed control Subordinated to the organization

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Theory into Practice Applications
1. Name the people who have formal authority over teachers in your school?
Whataretheirformalpositions?Howmuchauthoritydotheyhaveandhow
dotheyexertit?Givespecificexamples.Describethedivisionoflaborand
specialization in your school. Is there a narrow or broad span of control?
How muchautonomy do teachershave to make theirowndecisions? How
wouldyoucharacterizetheformalorganizationofyourschool?

2. Name the people who have informal authority but no formal authority?
Wheredotheygettheirinfluence?Whataretheimportantinformalnorms
inyourschool?Howdotheformalandinformal leadersinteract?Dothey
cooperate or compete? Give some examples. How much conflict exists
between the formal and informal? Give examples of conflict. Describe the
grapevine.Howwouldyoucharacterizetheinformalorganizationsofyour
school?

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Practical Imperatives
Ensure that those with expertise make the important decisions: Knowledge
rules.
Substitute professional judgment for rules when possible: Judgment trumps
rules.
Initiate enabling structures: They facilitate positive school cultures.
Avoid hindering structures: They frustrate professional judgment and teacher
creativity.
Anticipate the negative consequences of rules: Be prepared and flexible.
Review and delete rules each year: The fewer the number of rules, the better.
Know your informal school leaders: Informal leadership is an important
complement to the formal.
Balance formal demands with individual capabilities: Both are critical for
success.
Make the workplace interesting and challenging: Create structures that nurture
creativity.
Be mindful: Make mindfulness in attitude, organization, and behavior a habit of
thought and action.
Institutionalize structures that work: Change structures that dont.
Move from bureaucratic to professional control: Teacher judgment should
eventually substitute for administrative control.
Seek harmonyW.between the
K. Hoy 2003, formal
2008, 2011 and informal organization: Both are