Action Research

Action Research

Action research is one of the qualitative research designs.

Action research is known by many other names, including

participatory research, collaborative inquiry, action learning,
and contextual action research, but all are variations on a
theme.
Action Research

Action research aims to solve current practical

problems while expanding scientific knowledge
(Myers).
Rapoport (1970), defines action research: Action
research aims to contribute both to the practical
concerns of people in an immediate problematic
situation and to the goals of social science by joint
collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical
framework.
Action Research Cont..

The distinctive feature of action research is that

the researcher deliberately intervenes while at the
same time studies the effect of that intervention.
Thus action research is learning by doing. The
researchers identify a problem, do something to
resolve it, see how successful their efforts were,
and if not satisfied, try again. Typically it is an
iterative research process. It also has a social
dimension - the research takes place in real world
situations, and aims to solve real problems.
Distinguishing Features of Action Research

Crark
(1972), emphasizes that action research is
concerned to enlarge the stock of knowledge.

It is
this aspect of action research that distinguishes it
from applied social science or applied business
research (applied marketing, accounting etc.) where
the goal is simply to apply scientific knowledge but not
to add to the body of knowledge. It is also different
from consultancy where a consultant takes existing
knowledge/methodology that is recommended by his
consultancy firm.
Distinguishing Features of Action Research

Action research is different from other qualitative

methods as well such as case study or
ethnography where the researchers tend to be
interested observers rather than active participants
as in the case of action research (Myers).
Historical background
Action research emerged soon after the end of the Second
World War. Kurt Lewin developed the method at the
Research Center for Group Dynamics at the University of
Michigan, and wanted to apply the theories of social
psychology to practical social problems. (Myers)
The Tavistock Clinic (later the Tavistock Institute) developed a
similar method in the UK in the 1950s and 1960s. The
institute worked with former soldiers and others who had
served in the Second World War and were suffering from
psychological and social disorders. (Myers)
In both cases the idea was to apply existing theory to solve a
practical problem, learn from the experience, and then add to
the body of knowledge by modifying the theory or suggesting
new theory. Their findings were published in the academic
literature.
Key characteristics of Action Research
Freebody (2003)

It is a deliberate rather than a purely

exploratory.
It is solution-oriented investigation aimed
explicitly at solving particular problems.
It is group or personally owned and conducted.
It takes the form of a series of iterations on and
around the problem. These iterations are
referred to as 'spirals but are more commonly
known as the action research cycle.
The Process/Cycle of Action Research

Baskerville and Myres (2004)

1. Diagnostic stage
Collaborative analysis of social situation by the researcher
and the subjects of researcher and theories are formulated

2. Therapeutic stage
Focus on collaborative change.
The Process/Cycle of Action Research

Susman and Evered (1978)

1. Diagnosing
2. Action planning
3. Action taking
4. Evaluating
5. Specifying learning
Susman and Evered (1978) five phases
model of action research process
Features/Elements of Action Research

1. Purpose & Value Choice

Scientific Inquiry plus Practical problem solving. Action
research is Change oriented process.
2. Contextual Focus
3. Change Based Data & Sense Making

4. Participation in the research Process

5. Knowledge Diffusion
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Practicability
Positive impact on business community
Disadvantages
Difficult one
Riskier
Philosophical approaches to Action Research

There are three main types/philosophical

approaches to action research:
1. Positivist Action Research
2. Interpretive Action Research
3. Critical Action Research
Positivist Action Research
Positivist action research is also called classical action
research.
This paradigm sees action research as a social experiment
and attempts to meet the requirements of positivist social
science and action research is seen as a method for
testing and refining hypotheses in the real world
Action research can be used to test out and/or replicate
theory in a new setting by immediate involvement in the
implementation stage.
Positivism, used in scientific and applied research, has
been considered by many to be the anti-thesis of the
principles of action research
Interpretive Action Research

Over the last half century, a new research paradigm

has emerged in the social sciences to break out of the
constraints imposed by positivism referred to as the
interpretive paradigm. Elden &Chisholm (1993),
called it contemporary action research.
It is characterized by a belief that social reality is
socially constructed, i.e. subjectively-based reality,
one that is influenced by culture and history and
largely controlled by the local conditions.
Critical Action Research

For some action researchers such as McKernan

(2006),and Winter and Munn Giddings (2001) and
the critical realism of Roy Bhaskar (1978), action
research may by critical.
Critical realism assumes the world is real while
acknowledging that we know it only imperfectly and
indirectly.
Types of Action Research

1. Participatory Action Research

Practitioners are involved as subjects and researchers. As co-

researcher practitioners have controlled over the research
process by setting their own research agenda, helping to
collect and analyze data, and controlling the use of results.
 2. Action Science

Understand the difference between behavior of practitioners

(theories in use) and their beliefs (espoused theories).
Assume that there is usually difference between what people
say and do.
People are unaware that their theories in use are not the same
as their espoused theories

.
Espoused Theory:
i. Represents the world view and values that people believe
their behavior is based on.
ii. It is what they think they are doing and this is what they
tell in their interview

Theory in use:
Focus on world view and behavior implied by peoples
behavior
Ethical Consideration

Action research is subject to the same ethical

protocols as other social research.
Informed consent from participants is mandatory.
There is equal access to information generated by
the process for all participants.
There must be an earnest attempt to do no harm.
Processes should be transparent.
Responsibility for maintaining confidentiality.
Role of the Action Researcher

Upon invitation into a domain, the outside

researchers role is to implement the Action
Research method in such a manner as to produce a
mutually agreeable outcome for all participants. To
accomplish this, it may necessitate the adoption of
many different roles at various stages of the process,
including:
Planner, leader, catalyzer, facilitator, teacher,
designer, listener, observer, synthesizer, reporter etc.
Examples of Action Research

1) Action research in Management Accounting

2) Action Research in Marketing
3) Action Research in Leadership
Action Research in Management
Accounting
Kaplan (1998) and his colleagues used action research to
develop two new management accounting approaches
1) Activity based costing, and
2) Balanced scorecard
)They initially documented a major limitation in
contemporary management accounting practice and
then identified a new concept to overcome this
limitation. They continued to apply and improve the
concept through publication, teaching, and active
participation with companies.
Activity Based Costing

Innovative Action Research Cycle

1. Observe & Document Innovative Practice

2. Teach & Speak About Innovation
3. Write journal Articles & Books
4. Implement the Concept in new Organization
Action Research in Marketing

The research of OLeary, Rao, and Perry (2004)

claimed that during that time many firms had not yet
fully capitalized on the interactive marketing
capabilities of the internet. By using action research
they develop a framework for integrating the internet
and database marketing to help marketers to
improve Customer Relationship Management.
Action Research in Leadership

The 1990s saw a world wide movement towards

collaborative governance, collaborative public service
provision, and collaborative approaches to
addressing social problems.
Huxham and Vangen (2000), looked to collaborative
leadership and what it takes to make things happen
in collaborative ventures. The authors conducted a
number of action research interventions in UK and
found that the single-mindedness of leaders appears
to be central to collaborative success.
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