SELF, IDENTITY, GENDER

in INFANCY & CHILDHOOD

John W. Santrock
SELF UNDERSTANDING
 The Self
Self-understanding
Self: All characteristics of a person
Self-understanding, self-esteem, self-concept
Identity: who a person is, representing a
synthesis of self-understanding
Personality: individuals enduring personal
characteristics

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 Self-understanding
Cognitive representation of the self,
substance of self conceptions
Infancy:
Visual self-recognition tests infants
Emerges gradually up to age 2; first in mirror
By age 3: forms of self-awareness
include "mine, me big, me do it"

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 Self-Recognition in Infancy

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Fig. 11.1
 Self-understanding and early childhood
More psychologically aware of self and
others
Self-recognition includes visual and verbal
Five main characteristics of self-
understanding
Confusion of self, mind, and body
Self described in size, shape, color, etc.

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 Self-understanding in childhood
Five main characteristics of self-understanding
Concrete descriptions: I live in a big
house
Physical descriptions: Im not tall like her
Active descriptions: "I can play games
Unrealistic positive overestimations: I know
my ABCs when s/he doesnt know them
Occurs in older children as social
comparison

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 Self-understanding
Early childhood and understanding others
By age 4: realize others make untrue
statements to get something or avoid
trouble
Individual differences in social
understanding; some linked to caregivers
conversations
More aware of others feelings, desires

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 Self-understanding
Middle and Late Childhood
Increased awareness of social standing
Self-understanding becomes more
complex
Understanding others
Realize others have access to more
information
Assume others understand them, too.

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 Self-understanding
Perspective-taking: ability to assume
anothers perspective and understand his
or her thoughts and feelings
Important in children developing
prosocial and antisocial attitudes and
behaviors
Affects peer status and quality of
friendships

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 Middle and Late Childhood
Self-understanding: five key changes
Internal characteristics emphasized
More referencing in social
descriptions
More use of social comparisons
Distinguish between real self and
ideal self
Realistic in self-evaluations

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SELF ESTEEM &
SELF CONCEPT
 Self-esteem and self-concept
Self-esteem: self-worth, self-image
Refers to global self-evaluation
Self-concept: domain-specific
evaluations of self
Distinct: not really interchangeable

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 Issues in self-esteem
Modest correlation with school performance
Linked to job performance; correlations vary
Related to perceived physical appearance
across life-span
Depression lowers high self-esteem
Self-esteem in adolescence appears linked
to adjustment and competencies in
adulthood

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 Issues in self-esteem
Narcissism: too much self-esteem
Self-centered, self-concerned, conceited
Lack of awareness linked to adjustment
problems
Happiness strongly linked to self-esteem

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 Developmental changes in self-esteem
Childhood and adolescence
Self-evaluation accuracy increases across
elementary school years; more realistic
Majority of adolescents have positive self-image
cross-culturally
Girls: small decreases in self-esteem may be
related to relationship authenticity

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 Self-regulation
Ability to control ones behavior without
having to rely on others for help
Includes self-generation and cognitive
monitoring of thoughts
Self-regulation linked to higher
achievement and satisfaction over the
lifespan

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 Self-regulation: Infancy and early childhood
12 to 18 mos: depend on caregivers for
reminder signals about acceptable behaviors
2 to 3 yrs: begin to comply with the
caregivers expectations in the absence of
monitoring
Preschool: learn to resist temptation and give
themselves instructions that keep them
focused

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 Self-regulation: Middle/late childhood and
adolescence
Capacity for self-regulation increases
Few studies done on adolescents
Increased self-control, introspection, risk-
taking
More independence, advanced cognitive
skills
Better at delaying gratification
More social comparison may increase risks

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IDENTITY
 What is identity?
A self-portrait composed of many
pieces
Vocational/career, political, religious
Relationship, achievement/intellectual
Cultural/ethnic, sexual, physical
Personality and interests

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 Identity
Eriksons view
Need to understand adolescent
development
Identity versus identity confusion
Adolescents examine who they are, what
they are about, and where they are going in
life
Psychosocial moratorium
Gap between childhood security and adult
autonomy, part of exploration for identity
Catatan: materi tentang perkembangan identitas pada remaja akan
dibahas lebih lanjut pada materi Perkembangan diri, Identitas
dan Gender Remaja
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GENDER
 Gender and Sex

Gender characteristics of being female or male

Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how females
and males should act, feel, and think
Gender typing: process by which children acquire
thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for
their gender

Sex designates the biological aspects of being

female or male
 Biological Influences

Chromosomes 23rd pair with X and Y

Hormones
Estrogens
Influences development of female physical sex
characteristics and helps regulate menstrual
cycle
Androgens
Testosterone promotes development of male
genitals and secondary sex characteristics
 Biological Influences

Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex

hormones early in development
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Androgen-insensitive males
Pelvic field defect
Failed sex reassignment
 Evolutionary Psychology
View of Gender

Differing roles in reproduction placed different

pressures on males and females
Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual
behaviors
Males competition, violence, risk-taking
Females parenting effort, selection of
successful mate
 Social Influences

Differences due to social experiences

Social role theory: gender differences result
from contrasting roles of men and women
Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child
identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6
Many disagree, claiming gender learned much
earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent)
 Social Influences

Differences due to social experiences

Social cognitive theory of gender gender
development results from observation and
imitation, use of rewards and punishments for
gender-appropriate behaviors
Mothers socialization strategies
Fathers socialization strategies
 Cognitive Influences

Cognitive development theory of gender

Childrens gender typing occurs after they think of
themselves as boys and girls; gender constancy
must be achieved first
Once consistently conceived as male or female,
children prefer activities, objects, and attitudes
consistent with this label
 Cognitive Influences
Gender schema theory
Gender typing emerges gradually in gender
schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate
and inappropriate
Gender-typed behavior can occur before children
develop gender constancy
Schema: cognitive structure
Gender schema: organizes world in terms of
male and female
 Gender Stereotyping

Broad categories that reflect our impressions and

beliefs about females and males
Traditional masculinity and femininity
Males instrumental traits
Females - expressive traits
Roles and traits unequal social status, power
Stereotyping varies with culture
Stereotyping of occupations
 Young Childrens Judgments about
Competency in Stereotyped Occupations

Fig. 12.3
 Gender Similarities and
Differences
Physical differences
Females
have longer life expectancy
less likely to develop mental or physical
disorders
Resistant to infections, more elastic blood
vessels
Males have higher levels of stress hormones
causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure
 Gender Similarities and
Differences

Physical differences
Female brains are smaller, have more folds
Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior
is larger in men
Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial
skills is larger in males
Areas of brain involved in emotional expression
show more activity in females
Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Some claim males better at math and
visuospatial skills and females better at verbal
skills
Others claim differences exaggerated
National standardized tests
Boys slightly better at math and science
Girls better at reading and writing
Overall, girls superior students to boys
 Visuospatial Skills of Males
and Females

Fig. 12.4
 Socioemotional Similarities
and Differences

Aggression
Males more physically aggressive in all cultures
Females more verbally aggressive; use relational
aggression more than men

Self-Regulation
Males show less self-regulation, can lead to
behavioral problems
Controversies over psychological differences
 Socioemotional Similarities
and Differences

Overall meta analysis

Gender differences: small to nonexistent
Physical aggression differences were moderate
Largest difference in motor skills favoring males
Males more sexually active than females
 Socioemotional Similarities
and Differences
Gender in context
Gender varies across contexts
Males more likely to help in perceived danger
Females more likely to volunteer to help with child
Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys
Males more likely to show anger towards strangers
and turn anger into aggression
Cultural backgrounds influence socialization
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Androgyny presence of masculine and feminine
characteristics in same individual
Bem Sex-Role Inventory:
Instrumental, expressive traits
Context influencing gender role is adaptive
Gender-role transcendence people should be
evaluated as persons, not in terms of femininity,
masculinity, or androgyny
 Bems Gender-Role
Classification

Fig. 12.5
Gender Development in
Childhood
Children form many ideas about what the sexes
are like from about 1 to 3 years of age
Boys receive earlier and more intense gender
socialization (e.g.: boy code)
Children show clear preference for same-sex
peers

Catatan: materi tentang perkembangan gender pada remaja akan

dibahas lebih lanjut pada materi Perkembangan diri, Identitas
dan Gender Remaja
 The End

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