Turbulence Models

Introduction
Turbulent flows are characterized by fluctuating
velocity fields
These fluctuations are too computationally expensive
to simulate directly in practical engineering
calculations.
Instead, the instantaneous (exact) governing equations
can be time-averaged, resulting in a modified set of
equations that are computationally less expensive to
solve.
However, the modified equations contain additional
unknown variables, and turbulence models are needed
to determine these variables in terms of known
quantities.
 Introduction
The instantaneous component is

ui U i ui

The Reynolds stresses are

U i U j
uiuj t
x x
j i
 Introduction
A turbulence model is a computational procedure to
close the system of the mean flow equations.
Two-equations model employs two additional partial
differential equations (PDE). One PDE for relating the
turbulence length scale and one for relating the
turbulence velocity scale.
The simplest ``complete models'' of turbulence are
two-equation models in which the solution of two
separate transport equations allows the turbulent
velocity and length scales to be independently
determined.
 Introduction
It is an unfortunate fact that no single turbulence
model is universally accepted as being superior
for all classes of problems
The choice of turbulence model will depend on
considerations such as the physics encompassed
in the flow, the established practice for a specific
class of problem, the level of accuracy required,
the available computational resources, and the
amount of time available for the simulation.
 The Standard k Model
by Launder and Spalding
The standard k - model is a semi-empirical
model based on model transport equations for
the turbulence kinetic energy (k) and its
dissipation rate ().
Robustness, economy, and reasonable
accuracy for a wide range of turbulent flows
explain its popularity in industrial flow and
heat transfer simulations.
 k - Equation
2
Dk 1 t k t U i U j U i k 1 2
2
Dt x j k x j x j xi x j x j

Rate of change of k + Transport of k by

convection = Transport of k by diffusion + Rate
of production of k - Rate of destruction of k
(Dissipation Rate)
 - Equation

D 1 t C1 t U i U j U i

Dt x j x
x j k x j x
i j
2
2
t U i
2
C2 2
k x j xi
 The turbulent viscosity is a function of velocity
scale and length scale as in the mixing length
approach
t C l
where velocity scale and length scale are given by:

32
k
k , 12
l

 Then the turbulent viscosity can be
calculated from the relation:

2
k
t C

 The model constants are
 Limitations of k model
Poor performance for flows with large extra strain
(e.g. curved boundary layer, swirling flow).
The predictions are not good for three-
dimensional flows.
The model needs modifications to include
anisotropy, curvature and rotation effects, and
turbulence amplifications through the shock
wave.
 The Standard k Model
Wilcox k Model
The standard model is an empirical model based on
model transport equations for the turbulence kinetic
energy (k) and the specific dissipation rate
It incorporates modifications for low-Reynolds-
number effects, compressibility, and shear flow
spreading.
The Wilcox model predicts free shear flow spreading
rates that are in close agreement with measurements
for far wakes, mixing layers, and plane, round, and
radial jets, and is thus applicable to wall-bounded
flows and free shear flows.
 The - Equation

D 1 t U i U j U i
t
2

Dt x j x j k x j xi x j

where the turbulent viscosity is given by

k
t ,

C k
 The velocity scale and length scale are
given by
12
k
k , l
12

The model constants are
 Advantages of the model
The model is reported to perform better in
transitional flows and in flows with adverse pressure
gradients;
The model is numerically very stable, especially the
low-Re version, as it tends to produce converged
solutions more rapidly than the k models; and
The low-Re version is more economical and elegant
than the low-Re k models, in that it does not
require the calculation of wall distances, additional
source terms and/or damping functions based on the
friction velocity.
 The main weakness of the k model is that
unlike the k model, it is sensitive to the free-
stream boundary condition for in free-shear
flows
 Near Wall Treatments
The flow can be divided into two regions:
-Near wall region (Region close to the wall)
-Outer or fully turbulent region
There are two methods for accounting regions
close to solid walls where the local Reynolds
number of turbulence is so small that viscous
effects predominate over the turbulent one
-The wall-function method
-The low-Reynolds-number-modeling method
 The wall-function method
At high Reynolds number the model avoids the
need to be solved at wall region by making use
of the universal behavior of near wall flows
Using the log-law and the assumption that the
rate of turbulence production equals the rate of
dissipation
Then it is possible to develop the wall functions
 The wall functions

2
U 1 u
u ln Ey p ;

k
;
u C
3
u

y
 Limitations of the Wall Function
Approach
The wall function approach becomes less
reliable when the flow conditions depart too
much from the ideal conditions underlying the
wall functions. Examples are:
Pervasive low-Reynolds-number or near-wall effects (e.g., flow
through a small gap or highly viscous, low-velocity fluid flow)
Massive transpiration through the wall (blowing/suction)
Severe pressure gradients leading to boundary layer separations
Strong body forces (e.g., flow near rotating disks, buoyancy-
driven flows)
High three-dimensionality in the near-wall region (e.g., spiral
flow, strongly skewed 3D boundary layers)
 The low-Reynolds-number-modeling
method
In these models the equations are valid
throughout the laminar, semi-laminar, and
fully turbulent regions.
The near-wall mesh should be fine enough to
be able to resolve the laminar sub-layer.
However, the restriction that the near-wall
mesh must be sufficiently fine everywhere
might impose too large a computational
requirement.
 Wall damping needs to be applied to ensure
that viscous stresses take over from turbulent
Reynolds stresses at low Reynolds numbers
and in the viscous sub-layer adjacent to solid
walls
You should have at least 10 cells within the
viscosity-affected near-wall region to be able
to resolve the mean velocity and turbulent
quantities in that region