Transducer

1
INTRODUCTION
An instrumentation system generally consists of three major elements:
i. Input device: receives the quantity under measurement and delivers a proportional electrical
signal to the signal-conditioning device
ii. Signal conditioning: the signal is amplified, filtered, or otherwise modified to a format
acceptable to the output device.
iii. Output device: The output device may be a simple indicating meter, an oscilloscope or chart
recorder for visual display.

The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is non electrical.

In order to use electrical methods and techniques for measurement manipulation or control the non
electrical quantity is converted into an electrical signal by a device called transducer.

What is transducer?
A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical variable is
known as transducer.

2
RECALL
Basic elements of an electrical/electronics
instrument
Signal
Modifier/ Indicating
Transducer
Device
Conditioning

1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
- ex: a pressure sensor detect pressure and convert it
to electricity for display at a remote gauge.
2) Signal modifier/Signal Conditioning
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the
indicating device
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measured 3
INTRODUCTION
Functions of transducer
1)To
sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency of some
measurand.

2)To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately processed

and applied to readable display device, gives accurate quantitative
data about the measurand.

Measurand
Transducer Electrical output

Excitation

Measurand refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal. 4
INTRODUCTION
The following parameters should be considered when selecting the
transducer:
i. Operating range: chosen to maintain range requirements and
good resolution.
ii. Sensitivity: chosen to allow sufficient output.
iii. Frequency response and resonant frequency: flat over the
entire desired range
iv. Environmental compatibility: Temperature range, corrosive,
fluids, pressure, shocks, interaction, size and mounting
restrictions.
v. Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than the
measurand.
vi. Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as
errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli
vii. Physical size 5
INTRODUCTION
Transducer Classification
Some of the common methods of classifying
transducers are given below.
Based on their application.
Based on the method of converting the non-electric
signal into electric signal.
Based on the output electrical quantity to be produced.
Based on the electrical phenomenon or parameter that
may be changed due to the whole process. Some of
the most commonly electrical quantities in a transducer
are resistance, capacitance, voltage, current or
inductance. Thus, during transduction, there may be
changes in resistance, capacitance and induction,
which in turn change the output voltage or current.
Based on whether the transducer is active or passive. 6
 INTRODUCTION
Types of Transducer:
Electrical transducer, Mechanical transducer,
Thermal transducer, Radiation transducer, etc..

The lists of transducer wont stop here, as technology goes

on, there will always another types of transducer being
introduced. Therefore, lets categorize the transducer in
these two types:

1. Active transducer
2. Passive transducer
7
INTRODUCTION
1) Active transducer
i. The transducer which does not requires any external
excitation (source) to provide their output. They generate
their own electrical voltage during conversion process.
ii. Example: Active pressure transducer Piezo electric
crystal
Active temperature transducer Thermocouple

2) Passive transducer
i. The transducer which requires an external excitation
(source) to provide their output. It requires ex. external
battery as a source of voltage to operate. It only changes
its parameter, like change in resistance or capacitance
during conversion process.
ii. Example: Passive pressure transducer Strain gauge
Passive temperature transducer - Thermistor 8
RESISTIVE POSITION TRANSDUCERS
The principle of the resistive position
transducer is that the measured quantity
causes a resistance change in the sensing
element.
A common requirement in industrial
measurement and control work is to be able to
sense the position of an object, or the
distance it has moved.
Two examples of resistive position transducer
are strain gauge and potentiometer
(displacement transducer) 9
POTENTIOMETER

10
POTENTIOMETER
Passive transducer, because it needs an external
source for its operation.

Consists of a resistance element provided with a

sliding contact, called wiper.
The motion of sliding contact may be translatory,
rotational or combination of both.
i. Translatory resistive elements are linear devices
ii. Rotational resistive elements - circular and are used for the
measurement of angular displacement
iii. Helical resistive elements multi turn rotational devices,
can measure either translatory or rotational motion.
11
POTENTIOMETER

12
POTENTIOMETER
Figure below shows the construction of a potentiometer
(displacement transducer ) which uses a resistance element
with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object being
monitored.

The resistance between the slider (=wiper) and one end of the
resistance element depends on the position of the object. The
output voltage depends on the wiper position and therefore is a
function of the shaft position.

13
POTENTIOMETER
In Figure below , the output voltage Eout is a fraction of E,
depending on the position of the slider (= wiper).
The element is considered perfectly linear if
the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly
along the length of travel of wiper.

Eout R2

E R1 R2
This equation shows that the output
voltage is directly proportional to the
position of the wiper, if the resistance
of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of
the wiper. 14
POTENTIOMETER
Example 1: A linear resistive displacement transducer has
a shaft stroke of 5 cm, total resistance of 3k, source
voltage of 6V. When the slider contact is 2 cm from the
zero output position, what will be the output voltage?

Ans: Given that x = 5 cm, x = 2 cm, E = 6 V, the output

voltage will be
Eout R2

E R1 R2
2
Eout 6 2.4V
5
15
 POTENTIOMETER
Example 2: A potentiometer (displacement transducer) with
a shaft stroke of 3 inch is applied to the circuit in Figure
below. The total resistance of the potentiometer is 5k. The
applied voltage, VT is 5V. When the slider/wiper is 0.9 inch
from B, what is the value of the output voltage, V O?

VT
VO

16
POTENTIOMETER
Example 3: A potentiometer with a shaft stroke of 5.5
inches is applied to the same circuit as Example 1. The
total resistance of the potentiometer is 4.7k. The applied
voltage is VT= 3V. When the wiper is 0.9 in. from B, what is
Vout?

17
POTENTIOMETER
Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit
(Potentiometer as a transducer connected to the
amplifier which acts as a signal conditioner).

18
POTENTIOMETER
Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control
systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its
commanded position.
These are typically used on machine-tool controls,
elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks,
automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these
are used in control of injection moulding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying,
robotics, etc. These are also used in computer-
controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
19
POTENTIOMETER
Advantages
1) They are inexpensive
2) Simple to operate and are very useful for applications
where the requirements are not particularly severe
3) Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide
sufficient output to allow control operations.

Disadvantages
1) When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is
required to move the sliding contacts.
2) The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned
and generate noise.

20
STRAIN GAUGE

21
STRAIN GAUGE
Strain gauge is a passive transducer that uses electrical
resistance variation
variation in wires to sense the strain and stress
produced by a force on the wires.

A strain gauge is a thin strip of metal designed to measure

mechanical load by changing resistance when stressed
(stretched or compressed within its elastic limit).
It is also used for measurement of:
Mechanical force
Displacement
Weight
Pressure
22
STRAIN GAUGE
The Strain Gauge
While there are several methods of measuring strain
and stress, the most common is with a strain gauge, a
device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to
the amount of strain in the device. For example, the
piezo resistive strain gauge is a semiconductor device
whose resistance varies nonlinearly with strain. The
most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded
metallic strain gauge.

23
STRAIN GAUGE
What is Strain?
Strain is the amount of deformation (elongation or
compression/unit length) of a body due to an applied
force. More specifically, strain () is defined as the
fractional change in length, as shown in Figure
below:

24
STRAIN GAUGE
What is Stress?
Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces. (force/unit
area)

For a uniform distribution of internal resisting forces, stress can be

calculated by dividing the applied force (F) by the unit area (A):

kg/m2 m2

kg
Stress tekanan
25
Strain regangan
STRAIN GAUGE
A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional area. The
combined effect is an increase in resistance as proved by the
following equation:
L
R
A
= specific resistance of the material (m)
L=length of the conductor (m)
A = area of the conductor (m)

As a result of strain, two physical parameters are of particular

interest:
1) The change in gauge resistance
2) The change in length
26
STRAIN GAUGE
The constant of proportionality between stress and strain
for linear stress-strain curve is known as the modulus of
elasticity of the material, E, or Youngs modulus.

E

E Youngs modulus in kilograms per-square meter

The stress in kilograms per square meter

The strain (no units)

27
STRAIN GAUGE
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its
sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as the gauge
factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of
fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional
change in length (strain):

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically

around 2. GF = K=gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R = the change in initial resistance in ohms

L = the initial length in meters (without strain)

28

L = the change in initial length in meters

STRAIN GAUGE
Example 1: A resistant strain gauge with a gauge
factor of 2 is fastened(cemented) to a steel
member, which is subjected to strain of 1x10 -6. If
the original resistance value of the gauge is 130,
calculate the change in resistance.

29
STRAIN GAUGE
Example 2: Assume a gage with GF = 2.0 and resistance
120 Ohms. It is subjected to a strain of 5 microstrain
(equivalent to about 50 psi in aluminium). Calculate the
change in resistance.

Example 3: Now assume the same gage is subjected to

5000 microstrain or about 50,000 psi in aluminum:

30
 STRAIN GAUGE
Strain gauge resistance changes are typically measured in
a bridge circuit, to allow for precise measurement of the
small resistance changes, and to provide compensation for
resistance variations due to temperature.
Typical strain gauge resistances range from 30 to 3k
(unstressed). This resistance may change only a fraction of
a percent for the full force range of the gauge, given the
limitations imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge
material and of the test specimen.
Forces great enough to induce greater resistance changes
would permanently deform the test specimen and/or the
gauge conductors themselves, thus ruining the gauge as a
measurement device. Thus, in order to use the strain gauge
as a practical instrument, we must measure extremely small
changes in resistance with high accuracy.
31
STRAIN GAUGE
To measure such small changes in resistance, and
compensate for the temperature sensitivity discussed in the
previous section, strain gauges are almost always used in
a bridge configuration with a voltage or current excitation
source. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below,
consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage,
VEX, that is applied across the bridge.

32
STRAIN GAUGE
Unlike the Wheatstone bridge shown in the last chapter
using a null-balance detector (Galvanometer) and a
human operator to maintain a state of balance, a strain
gauge bridge circuit indicates measured strain by the
degree of imbalance, and uses a precision voltmeter in
the centre of the bridge to provide an accurate
measurement of that imbalance:

The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:

33
STRAIN GAUGE

34
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Passive transducer with sensing element
Capacitor (electrical quantity: capacitance)

In this type of transducers, the measured quantity

causes a change in the transducers capacitance,
which can be achieved by changing d, A, or K .

Capacitive transducer is of non-contact type

transducer and is primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few millimeters to
hundreds of millimeters. It is also widely used in
pressure measurement.
35
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Recall CAPACITOR
A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating
material called a dielectric.
The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel
plates maintain their stored electrical charges.

36
 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
The relationship between the capacitance and the size of
capacitor plate, amount of plate separation, and the
dielectric is given by
A
C K
d
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
d is the separation distance of plates (m)
K is the dielectric constant, where K = o x r
o = the absolute permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 farad/meter
r = the relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates
(m2)
37
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Capacitive transducer operates on the following principle:

The measured quantity causes a change in the

transducers capacitance (variation in capacitance),
which can be achieved by changing d, A, or K .

d K

38
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Variation in capacitance
Changing Changing the Changing the
the surface dielectric spacing between
area A constant K plate D
C C C

A k d
The value of C will Value of C will Value of C will
change proportionally increased when the decreased when the
to the change of dielectric constant spacing between
affective area of the increased plate increased
plates
Changes in capacitance will indicate the position 39

displacement.
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Forms of capacitance transducer

Rotary plate capacitor

Thin diaphragm

Rectilinear Capacitance 40
Transducer
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Example :
An electrode-diaphragm pressure capacitive transducer has
plates whose area is 5x10-3 m2 and distance between plates
is
1x10-3. Calculate its capacitance if it measures air pressure
with
K=1.
A
C K
d

41
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Applications
1) Feed hopper level monitoring
2) Small vessel pump control
3) Level control of liquids
4) Metrology applications
1) to measure shape errors in the part being produced
2) to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various
machine tools such as surface grinders, lathes, milling
machines, and air bearing spindles by measuring errors in
the machine tools themselves
5) Assembly line testing
1) to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other
design features
2) to detect the presence or absence of a certain component,
such as glue etc. 42
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitive to temperature variations
2. The possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing
to long lead length

43
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
There is a variety of transducers whose operation is inductive.
Maybe either active or passive type, depending on the
generation of the induced magnetic field.
For motion measurement applications, a change in the quantity
to be measured must be converted into a change in inductance
(and then to voltage using a circuit).
The (self) inductance L is an indication of the ability of a coil to
oppose any change in current flowing through the coil. The
inductance L of a cylindrical coil is given by

where
L is the inductance [Henry, H]
is the permeability of the core [Wb/A-t-m]
n is the number of turns of coil [1]
A is the cross sectional area of core [m2] l is the length of core [m] 44
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
An inductive transducer is designed such that the quantity
to be measured changes the inductance of the
transducers coil to produce either a change in current
through the coil or a change in the voltage across the coil.
One of the most common ways of producing such a
change is to use a movable core which moves back and
forth inside a coil, where a permeability is varied as the
core is displaced within the coil.
The core is usually made of a highly permeable material
such as ferrite and iron.
There is one type of inductive transducer which becoming
more popular LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer).
45
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
LVDTs are beautiful devices that can detect motion and
position with incredible sensitivity and linearity.

Figure above shows the components of a typical LVDT. The

transformers internal structure consists of a primary winding
centred between a pair of identically wound secondary
windings, symmetrically spaced about the primary.
46
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
The coils are wound on a one-piece hollow form of
thermally stable glass reinforced polymer, encapsulated
against moisture, wrapped in a high permeability
magnetic shield, and then secured in a cylindrical
stainless steel housing. This coil assembly is usually the
stationary element of the position sensor.

The cross sectional view of

the DC LVDT at left shows
CORE
the built-in signal conditioning
electronics module.
Primary winding
Secondary winding
47
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
The moving element of an LVDT is a separate tubular armature
of magnetically permeable material called the core, which is
free to move axially within the coils hollow bore, and
mechanically coupled to the object whose position is being
measured. This bore is typically large enough to provide
substantial radial clearance between the core and bore, with no
physical contact between it and the coil.
In operation, the LVDTs primary winding is energized by
alternating current of appropriate amplitude and frequency,
known as the primary excitation. The LVDTs electrical output
signal is the dierential AC voltage between the two secondary
windings, which varies with the axial position of the core within
the LVDT coil. Usually this AC output voltage is converted by
suitable electronic circuitry to high level DC voltage or current
that is more convenient to use.
48
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Industrial Applications

49
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Advantages
1) Relatively low cost due to its popularity.
2) Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide
variety of environments.
3) No friction resistance, since the iron core does not
contact the transformer coils, resulting in an innite
(very long) service life.
4) No permanent damage to the LVDT if
measurements exceed the designed range.

50
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Disadvantages

51
Temperature Transducers
The temperature transducers can be divided
into three main categories:
oResistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
oThermocouples
oThermistors
RTD and Thermistors are passive devices, whose
resistance changes with temperature hence need an
electrical supply to give output.
Thermocouples are active transducers and are based
on the principles of generation of thermoelectricity,
when two dissimilar metals are connected together to
form a junction called the sensing junction, an emf is
generated proportional to the temperature of the
junction.
52
Resistance Temperature
Detector RTD
RTDs are temperature sensors that is based on the
principles; metal resistance increasing with temperature
RTDs are made of materials whose resistance changes in
accordance with temperature
Metals such as platinum, nickel , copper and tungsten are
commonly used.

A commercial ThermoWorks RTD probe

53
RTD Construction

54
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Some examples of RTDs are as follows:

55
Resistance Temperature
Detector RTD
Type of RTD Temperature Resistance
Range oC Coefficient Alpha ()
/Co
Platinum -184 to 815 0.0039
Nickel -73 to 149 0.0067
Copper -51 t0 149 0.0042
Tungsten -73 to 276 0.0045
A table for RTDs that shows the type of material, temperature range, and the
amount of resistance per oC
56
Resistance Temperature
Detector RTD
Relationship between Temperature & Resistance of
conductor in the temperature range near 00C

Difference between
Resistance of the operating & reference
conductor at ToC temperatures

Rt = Rref ( 1 + T )

Resistance at the Temperature

reference temperature coefficient of
usually 0oC/ 20oC resistance 57
 The relationship between temperature and
resistance of conductors can be calculated from
this equation:

R Ro (1 T )
where;
R= resistance of the conductor at temp t (oC)
Ro=resistance at the reference temp, usually 00C
= temperature coefficient of resistance
= difference between operating and reference
temp.

58
RTD
Example:
A platinum resistance thermometer has a
resistance of 220 at 20oC. Calculate the
resistance at 50oC?
Given that 200C=0.00392.
R Ro (1 T )

59
RTD
Example

A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of

150at 20oC. Calculate its resistance at 50oC (70oC=
0.00392)

60
RTD
Example
At room temperature (20oC), the voltmeter in Figure below gives a
reading of 2.501 V. The temperature of a material is measured using the
two-wires tungsten RTD and the voltmeter now gives a reading of 2.307
V. If = 0.0045/oC , determine the temperature (in oC) of the measured
material.

61
RTD
Most RTD use a Wheatstone bridge or its modified
version.
RTD is used with Wheatstone bridge as the signal
conditioning circuit for temperature measurement
RTD and its leads are connected in one of its arms.
The bridge is essentially a resistance measuring device,
which converts the resistance of the RTD into an
electrical signal that is used for monitoring or controlling
temperature.
The basic Wheatstone Bridge with a two wire RTD
connected.

62
Two-Wire, Three-Wire, and Four-Wire RTDs

Electrical diagram of a two-wire

RTD connected to a Wheatstone
bridge circuit

Diagram of a three-wire RTD

connected to a Wheatstone bridge
circuit

ES=supply voltage
E0 =output voltage
RT= RTD 63
R1, R2, R3 = fixed resistor
Two-Wire, Three-Wire, and Four-Wire RTDs
Four-wire RTD. In this configuration, one
additional wire is connected to each end of the
original two-wire RTD. These additional wires
provide another way to compensate for
unwanted changes in resistance.

Purpose for having extra wires

to provide temperature compensation
Extra lead can be used in wide variety of
circuits to cancel off the effects of unwanted
temperatures so that all changes in resistance
to the bridge come from the RTD

64
RTD

DISADVANTAGES OF RTD:
i.Low sensitivity.
ii.It can be affected by contact resistance, shock and vibration.
iii.Requires no point sensing.
iv.Higher cost than other temperature transducer.
v.Requires 3 or 4 wire for its operation and associated instrumentation to
eliminates errors due to lead resistance. 65
Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar / different
metals, joined together at one end, which produce a
small unique voltage at a given temperature. This
voltage is measured and interpreted by the
thermocouple.

The magnitude of this voltage depends on the

materials used for the wires and the amount of
temperatures difference between the joined end and
the other ends.

66
Thermocouples
Some examples of the thermocouples are as
follows:

67
Thermocouples
Common commercially available
thermocouples are specified by ISA
(Instrument Society of America) types.

Type E, J, K, and T are base-metal

thermocouples and can be used up to about
1000C (1832F).

Type S, R, and B are noble-metal

thermocouples and can be used up to about
2000C (3632F).
68
Thermocouples
The following table provides a summary of basic
thermocouple properties.

69
Thermocouples
Calibrationcurves for several commercially
available thermocouples is as below:

70
 Thermocouples
When a pair of wires made of different metals are joined
together at one end, a temperature difference between this
end and the other end of the wires produces a voltage
between the wires. This phenomenon is called as the
Seebeck effect
This forms is the basis of thermocouples.

Depends on

Temperature Material
being (wire)
measured Temperature
Difference
Sensing junction
71
Thermocouples
Made diff. metals or metal alloys covering a wide range of
temperatures (-270oC 2700oC)
Output Voltage of the Thermocouple, Vo

Vo= c (T1 T2) + k (T12 - T22)

c(mV/oC) and k(mV/oC2) = constants of the thermocouple

materials
T1 = the temperature of the hot junction
T2 = the temperature of the cold or reference junction

72
Thermocouples
The magnitude of thermal emf depends on the
wire materials used and on the temperature difference
between the junctions.
The effective emf of the thermocouple is given as:

E c(T1 T2 ) k (T T ) 1
2
2
2

Where;
c and k constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 - temperature of the hot junction.
T2 - temperature of the cold or
reference junction. 73
Thermocouples
Example

During experiment with a copper- costantan

thermocouple, it was found that
c= 3.75x10-2 mV/oC and k = 4.50x10-5 mV/oC. If
T1= 100oC and the cold junction T2 is kept
in the ice, compute the resultant electromotive
force, emf?

74
Thermocouples

Thermal emfs for some common thermocouple materials 75

 Compensation Circuit
Iron
Example of placing the second
junction in an ice-bath to provide
Constantan cold-junction compensation

Reference Junction in Ice Bath

Copper
Iron Example circuit that shows
+ Extension Wire a thermistor used to provide
cold-junction compensation.
This type of compensation
- Constantan is called software
Copper compensation because the
reference voltage must be
Extension Wire
calculated with hot-junction
voltage to get accurate
reading
76
Cold Junction
Compensation
Compensation Circuit
Why compensation circuit is needed ?
The second junction can be controlled so that it produces 0 volt. This is
accomplished by forcing its temperature to 32oF or 0oC. In the 1800s this was
accomplished by placing the junction into an ice bath, so this junction became
known as the cold junction.
junction Modern thermocouple today circuit today can
accomplish the same function with an electronic compensation circuit called
cold-junction compensation.
compensation The cold junction compensation circuit
provides the equivalent voltage produced by the junction in the ice bath so
that the actual voltage produced by the junction that is measuring the amount
of heat can determine the temperature accurately.

77
Thermocouples

Uninsulate
d Probe
assembly

Insulated

Thermocouple
well (protection
high)

78
Thermocouples

Example

During experiments with a copper-constantan

thermocouple it was found that c = 3.75 x 10-2 mV/oC and k
= 4.5 x 10-5 mV/oC2. If T1=100oC and the cold junction T2 is
kept in ice, compute the output voltage. (4.2 mV)

79
Thermistors (THERMally sensitive resistor)
Thermistors are a temperature-sensitive resistor, like
RTD.
Thermistors are semiconductor material(non metallic
resistors), made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and
uranium.
Thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient
(NTC), i.e resistance decrease as temperature rises.
(see Figure 13.12).
The commercial resistance at room temperature (250C)
for typical units ranges from 100 to 10M. Suitable for
use only up to 8000C.
Thermistor are also available with positive temperature
coefficient (PTC), but are seldom used for
measurement since they have poor sensitivity. 80
Thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC), i.e
resistance decrease as temperature increase.

81
 The form of thermistor obtained in beads, disc, washer
or rod and probes. It is based on the size and resistance
range.
Application:
beads: Measuring temperature of liquids (resistance
300 to 100M)
Disc: For temperature control (resistance 1 to 1M)
Washer: Mounting on bolt (resistance 1 to 1M)
Rod: (resistance 1 to 50k)

Thermistors can be connected in series/parallel

combinations for application requiring increased power
handling capability.
Thermistor are chemically stable and can be used in
nuclear environments
Their wide range of characteristics also permits the
thermistor to be used in limiting and regulation circuits,
as time delays, for integration of power pulses and as
82
memory units
Thermistors

Typical thermistor configurations

83
Electrical symbol of a thermistor
Thermistors

84
Thermistors

85
86
Thermistors
Temperature-resistance characteristic,

1 1

T To
RT Ro e

Ro = resistance at the reference temperature To (Kelvin)

RT = resistance at the measured temperature T (Kelvin)
= experimentally determined constant for the given
thermistor material.
0oC = 273 K
So, for XoC (X+273) K

87
Thermistors

Relationship between R and T (oF)

R decreases as the T increases

88
Thermistors
Example
For a certain thermistor, =3140K and the resistance at
27oC is known to be 1050. The thermistor is used for
temperature measurement and the resistance measured is
2330. Find the measured temperature.

89
Thermistors
Example 2
The circuit below is to be used for temperature
measurement. The thermistor is a 4-k type identified in
( Figure in slide No 88). The meter is a 50-mA ammeter with
internal resistance of 3, Rc is set to 17 , and the power
supply VT is 15V. What will the meter reading at 150oF be?

90
 Comparing advantages and disadvantages of Thermocouples,
RTDs and Thermistors temperature sensors

Attribute Thermocouple RTD Thermistor

Cost Low High Low

Very wide Wide Short to medium

Temperature Range -350oF -400oF -100oF
+3200oF +1200oF +500oF

Interchange ability Good Excellent Poor to fair

Long-term Stability Poor to fair Good Poor
Accuracy Medium High Medium
Repeatability Poor to fair Excellent Fair to good
Sensitivity (output) Low Medium Very high
Response Medium to fast Medium Medium to fast
Linearity Fair Good Poor
Self Heating No Very low to low High
Point (end) Sensitive Excellent Fair Good
Lead Effect High Medium Low
Size/Packaging Small to large Medium to small Small to medium

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