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Steam Nozzles
We apply the first law per unit mass for one entrance,
one exit, and neglect the potential energies. Let the
inlet state be unsubscripted and the exit or stagnation
state have the subscript o.
V2 Vo2
qnet h wnet ho
2 2 4
ce the exit velocity, work, and heat transfer are zero,
2
V
ho h
2
The term ho is called the stagnation enthalpy (some
authors call this the total enthalpy). It is the enthalpy
the fluid attains when brought to rest adiabatically while
no work is done.
r ideal gases with constant specific heats, the enthalpy difference becomes
2 2
V V
CP (To T ) To T
2 2C P
or
6
MASS FLOW RATE THROUGH A NOZZLE
CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
Maximum mass
flow rate (Mach.
0.16 No. =1)
0.14
0.12
m [kg/s]
0.10
Dia.=1 cm
0.08
To=1200 K
0.06 Po=1500 kPa
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
P*/Po P/Po
3. Pb = P* or P*/Po = Pb /Po < 1. Flow increases to the choked flow limit as the back
pressure is lowered to the critical pressure. Pe = Pb, M=1.
4. Pb < P* or Pb /Po < P*/Po < 1. Flow is still choked and does not increase as the
back pressure is lowered below the critical pressure, pressure drop from Pe to Pb
occurs outside the nozzle. Pe = P*, M=1.
P b tsid f no
/e
bound xit
ou
=
a ry )
Pr
es
e
o
su
re
zz
le
24
25
PA = Po, or PA/Po = 1. No flow occurs. Pe = Pb, Me = 0.
Po > PB > PC > P* or P*/Po < PC/Po < PB/Po < 1. Flow begins to increase
as the back pressure is lowered. The velocity increases in the converging
section but M < 1 at the throat; thus, the diverging section acts as a
diffuser with the velocity decreasing and pressure increasing. The flow
remains subsonic through the nozzle. Pe = Pb and Me < 1.
26
PC > Pb > PE or PE/Po < Pb/Po < PC/Po < 1. The fluid that achieved sonic
velocity at the throat continues to accelerate to supersonic velocities in
the diverging section as the pressure drops. This acceleration comes to
a sudden stop, however, as a normal shock develops at a section
between the throat and the exit plane. The flow across the shock is
highly irreversible. The normal shock moves downstream away from the
throat as Pb is decreased and approaches the nozzle exit plane as Pb
approaches PE. When Pb = PE, the normal shock forms at the exit plane
of the nozzle. The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging section
in this case, and it can be approximated as isentropic.
PE > Pb > 0 or 0 < Pb/Po < PE/Po < 1. The flow in the diverging section is
supersonic, and the fluids expand to PF at the nozzle exit with no normal
shock forming within the nozzle. When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or
outside the nozzle. When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and expansion
waves occur downstream of the exit plane or the nozzle. When Pb > PF,
however, the pressure of the fluid increases from PF to Pb irreversibly in
the wake or the nozzle exit, creating what are called oblique shocks.
27
Normal Shocks
In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat
of a converging-diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section experiences a normal shock. The normal shock causes a
sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden drop in velocity to
subsonic levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be
approximated as isentropic. The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific
heats before (subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a shock are related by
28
Nozzle efficiency
The isentropic efficiency of nozzles is
defined as the ratio of the actual kinetic
energy at exit to the kinetic energy at
the exit when the process is isentropic
for the same inlet and exit pressures.
Example 1
Steam at 400oC, 1.0 MPa, and 300 m/s flows through a pipe. Find the
properties of the steam at the stagnation state.
r2
V
ho h
2
2
m kJ
300
kJ s
kg
3264.5
kg 2 m2
1000 2
s
kJ
3309.5
kg
kJ
so = s = 7.4670
kg K 30
Example 2
An aircraft flies in air at 5000 m with a velocity of 250 m/s. At 5000 m, air
has a temperature of 255.7 K and a pressure of 54.05 kPa. Find To and Po.
2
r2 m kJ
250
V s kg
To T 255.7 K
2CP kJ m 2
2(1.005 ) 1000 2
kg K s
(255.7 31.1) K
286.8 K
31
Example 2.A.
Consider the isentropic steady flow of an ideal gas through the nozzle shown below.
Since the inlet velocity is low, the stagnation properties equal the static properties.
P (1300kPa ) kJ
RT (0.287 kJ )(11519 3
. K ) kPa
m
kg K
kg
3.932 3
m
33
kg
3
m s104 cm2
A
V (3.9322 kg )(310.77 m ) m2
m3 s
24.55cm2
m2
1000 2
kJ s
C kRT 14
. (0.287 )(11519
. K)
kg K kJ
kg
m
680.33
s
310.77 m
V s 0.457
M
C 680.33 m
s
Now we tabulate the results for the other 200 kPa increments in the pressure until we
reach 100 kPa.
34
Summary of Results for Nozzle Problem
Ste P T
V C A M
p kPa K m/s kg/m3 m/s cm2
0 1500 1200 0 4.3554 694.38 0
35
Example 3
Air leaves the turbine of a turbojet engine and enters a convergent nozzle at 400 K,
871 kPa, with a velocity of 180 m/s. The nozzle has an exit area of 730 cm2.
Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for back pressures of 700 kPa, 528
kPa, and 100 kPa, assuming isentropic flow.
36
For air k = 1.4, The critical pressure ratio is P*/Po = 0.528.
Therefore, for a back pressure of 528 kPa, M = 1 at the nozzle exit and the flow is
choked. For a back pressure of 700 kPa, the nozzle is not choked. The flow rate will
not increase for back pressures below 528 kPa.
37
For the back pressure of 700 kPa,
PB 700 kPa P*
0.700
Po 1000 kPa Po
Thus, PE = PB = 700 kPa. For this pressure ratio Table A-15 gives
M E 0.7324
TE
0.9031
To
TE 0.9031 To 0.9031(4161
. K ) 3758
. K
CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(3758
. K)
kg K kJ
kg
m
388.6
s
m
VE M E CE (0.7324)(388.6 )
s
m
284.6
s 38
PE (700kPa ) kJ
E
RTE (0.287 kJ )(375.8 K ) m3 kPa
kg K
kg
6.4902 3
m
Then
m E AEVE
kg m m2
6.4902 3 ( 730 cm )(284.6 )
2
m s (100 cm) 2
kg
134.8
s
For the back pressure of 528 kPa,
PE 528 kPa P*
0.528
Po 1000 kPa Po
39
This is the critical pressure ratio and ME = 1 and PE = PB = P* = 528 kPa.
TE T *
0.8333
To To
TE 0.8333 To 0.8333(4161
. K ) 346.7 K
And since ME = 1,
VE CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )( 346.7 K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
373.2
s
P* (528kPa ) kJ
E
*
RT * (0.287 kJ )(346.7 K ) m3 kPa
kg K
kg
5.3064 3
m
40
m E AEVE
kg m m2
5.3064 3 (730 cm )(373.2 )
2
m s (100 cm) 2
kg
144.6
s
For a back pressure less than the critical pressure, 528 kPa in this case, the nozzle is
choked and the mass flow rate will be the same as that for the critical pressure.
Therefore, at a back pressure of 100 kPa the mass flow rate will be 144.6 kg/s.
Example 4
41
For A/A* = 2, Table A-32 yields two Mach numbers, one > 1 and one < 1.
When the diverging section acts as a supersonic nozzle, we use the value for M > 1.
Then, for AE/A* = 2.0, ME = 2.197, PE/Po = 0.0939, and TE/To = 0.5089,
PE 0.0939 Po 0.0939(1000 kPa ) 93.9 kPa
TE 0.8333 To 0.5089(500 K ) 254.5 K
CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(254.5K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
319.7
s
42
m m
VE M E CE 2.197(319.7 ) 702.5
s s
The mass flow rate can be calculated at any known cross-sectional area where the
properties are known. It normally is best to use the throat conditions. Since the flow
has sonic conditions at the throat, Mt = 1, and
Tt T *
0.8333
To To
Tt 0.8333 To 0.8333(500 K ) 416.6 K
Vt Ct kRTt
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )(416.6 K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
409.2
s
Pt P *
0.528
Po Po
Pt 0.528 Po 0.528(1000 kPa ) 528 kPa
43
P* (528kPa ) kJ
t
*
RT * (0.287 kJ )(416.6 K ) m3 kPa
kg K
kg
4.416 3
m
m t AV
t t
kg m m2
4.416 3 (8 cm )(409.2 )
2
m s (100 cm) 2
kg
1446
.
s
When the diverging section acts as a diffuser, we use M < 1. Then, for
AE /A* = 2.0, ME = 0.308, PE /Po = 0.936, and TE /To = 0.9812,
44
CE kRTE
m2
1000 2
kJ s
14
. (0.287 )( 490.6 K )
kg K kJ
kg
m
444.0
s
m m
VE M E CE 0.308(444.0 ) 136.7
s s
Since M = 1 at the throat, the mass flow rate is the same as that in the first part
because the nozzle is choked.
45
Example 5
Air flowing with a velocity of 600 m/s, a pressure of 60 kPa, and a temperature of 260
K undergoes a normal shock. Determine the velocity and static and stagnation
conditions after the shock and the entropy change across the shock.
46
r r
V1 V1
The Mach number before the shockMis1 C
1 kRT1
m
600
s
m2
1000 2
kJ s
1.4(0.287 )(260 K )
kg K kJ
kg
1.856
For M1 = 1.856, Table A-32 gives
P1 T
0.1597, 1 0.5921
Po1 To1
For Mx = 1.856, Table A-33 gives the following results.
P2
M 2 0.6045, 3.852, 2 2.4473
P1 1
T2 P P
1.574, o 2 0.7875, o 2 4.931
T1 Po1 P1
47
From the conservation of mass with A2 = A1.
r r
V2 2 V1 1
r m
r V1 600
V2 s 245.2 m
2 2.4473 s
1
P
P2 P1 2 60 kPa (3.852) 231.1 kPa
P1
T
T2 T1 2 260 K (1.574) 409.2 K
T1
T1 260 K
To1 439.1 K To 2
T1 0.5921
To1
P 60 kPa
Po1 1 375.6 kPa
P1 0.1597
P
o1
Po 2
Po 2 Po1 375.6 kPa(0.7875) 295.8 kPa
Po1 48
The entropy change across the shock is
T2 P2
s2 s1 CP ln R ln
T
1 P1
kJ kJ
s2 s1 1.005 ln 1.574 0.287 ln 3.852
kg K kg K
kJ
0.0688
kg K
49
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