MAE 4261: AIR-BREATHING ENGINES

Additional Topics

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department

Florida Institute of Technology

D. R. Kirk
 TURBINE COOLING TRENDS
Thrust and performance
increases monotonically with
turbine inlet temperature, t
Isp and thermal also increase
Because of associated
increase in c
STRONG INCENTIVE TO
INCREASE t
Turbine efficiency decreases
Blade materials: oxidation-
resistant, high , such as
Nickel and Cobalt based alloys
Increase limited by
metallurgical progress Most current advancement
due to air-cooling

Introduction of directionally-
solidified and single-crystal
blade materials
WHERE DOES COOLING AIR COME FROM?

Turbine blades cooled with

compressor discharge air

Other components
(burner, liners, disks, etc.)
also cooled with
compressor air
 OVERALL COMMENTS
Cooling air drawn from compressor
Must be at higher pressure than that part of flow path to be cooled

Blades are cooled by combination of internal and external cooling

Internal cooling: Convection driven
External cooling: Film Cooling
COOLING SYSTEMS
 COOLING STRATEGIES: INTERNAL COOLING

Cooling air is pumped through inside of

blades
Air is pumped in at root and makes
multiple passes before exiting at
root
Material is cooled by forced convection
on inside surface and by conduction
through blade
Different regions of blades can have
different cooling profiles
Large surface area on inside
Many designs employ roughened
internal microfin structure
COOLING STRATEGIES: FILM COOLING
FILM COOLING BEHAVIOR
FILM COOLING OPTIONS
FILM COOLING OPTIONS
 EXAMPLE OF FILM-COOLING DATA

Tr Trf

Tr Tc

x/D
Cooling Effectiveness, (often called adiabatic film effectiveness)
Tr = Adiabatic recover temperature = the temperature wall would reach if adiabatic
(no heat transfer) in the absence of film cooling
Trf = recovery temperature in the presence of film cooling
B (U)jet / (U) ~ 1.0 B (U)jet / (U) ~ 0.5
TREMENDOUS AMOUNT OF DATA AVAILABLE
 COOLING JET BEHAVIOR: CFD
Attached Jet: B (U)jet / (U) ~ 0.5
2780 1800 A-A: x/D = 10
2492 1640

2204 1480
A-A
1916 1320

1628 1160

1340 1000

1052 840
Lifted Jet: B (U)jet / (U) ~ 2.0
764 680

476 520

188 360
A-A
-100 200

F K
x/D = 10
COOLING STRATEGIES: TRANSPIRATION COOLING
Wire cloth or mesh is used for
exterior of blade and air is leaked
uniformly through it
Consists of a plurality of
wires made of metal, ceramic
or other materials, and
arranged with their
longitudinal axes generally
and not necessarily precisely,
parallel to the blade axis,
either with or without a
stiffener insert
Ample porosity is provided for
transportation cooling
Cools surface and provides a
protective layer
 HOW TO DESIGN COOLED BLADES
One of the most difficult areas of gas turbine design

1. Estimate wall heat flux (qw) over blade surface for specified wall temperature (T w)
2. Find thermal stresses in the skin
3. Find the reduction in qw required to limit stresses to acceptable values find
required of film cooling
4. Find the arrangement of cooling holes and cooling air flow for film cooling to
provide the required effectiveness
5. Find the internal cooling airflow to absorb residual q w
 ENGINE MATERIALS

Different materials used in Rolls-Royce jet engine

Blue: titanium is ideal for strength and density, but not at high temperatures
Red: nickel-based superalloys
Orange: steel used for the static parts of the compressor
Green: Composite
PW4084: COLOR SCAN SOON!
 ADDITIONAL ISSUES AND BLADE TESTING
Other Issues
High Cycle Fatigue
Materials
Manufacturing
Containment of Blade
Disk Rupture
Sealing
Tip and Hub Losses
Turbine Cooling Bleed
Inspection
Replacement Parts ($) Blade-Out Simulation
 BLADE MATERIALS AND GROWTH
Although blade cooling can reduce
temperatures, heat transfer limitations still
exist and t

Conventionally cast blades (inexpensive)

Myriad of crystals which gives
multidirectional mechanical properties
Failure usually at boundary between
crystals, long term creep
Directionally solidified blades (cost )
Blade is comprised of many long or
columnar crystals
Blade made out of a Ni-base super alloy
Directionally-solidified, resulting in a
columnar grain structure which mitigates
grain-boundary induced creep
Single crystal blades (cost )
No crystal boundaries
Multidirectional mechanical properties
Blade is directionally-solidified to
permit only one crystal to grow into
blade
 BLADE AND VANE MANUFACTURING (FLACK)
1. Two-piece die made that is very accurate negative of eventual blade shape (used thousands of times).
2. If blade is hollow, ceramic core in exact shape of internal passages placed in die. Ceramic core is negative
of passages.
3. Die is filled with hot paraffin-based wax (liquid), and wax is allowed to cool and harden. Waxes are chosen so
that they do no shrink upon cooling.
4. Die is separated and wax piece is removed. Wax is now an exact replica of eventual metal blade. If eventual
blade is hollow, ceramic core is still in wax replica.
5. Wax blade is coated (by dipping, spraying, or both) with a slurry and then stucco with multi-layers. A silica,
alumina, or other ceramic flour, or a combination of these is used to create stucco shell.
6. Wax inside of stucco shell is melted and escapes through exit holes. If blade is to be hollow, ceramic core
remains accurately in place in stucco shell.
7. Stucco shell, which is heat resistant, is filled with blade material and blade material is allowed to cool.
8. Stucco shell is removed from blade by air or sand blasting.
9. If hollow core is present, ceramic core is removed by immersion in a caustic solution that dissolves internal
ceramic core.
10. Finishing or trimming accomplished by removing any metal used for holing blade in place.
11. Blades are inspected by X-ray and fluorescing surface die for internal and surface defects. If minor defects are
found, they are repaired. If major imperfections are found, blade is discarded.
12. Some blades are coated with a very thin film of a poor heat conductor (usually ceramic)
13. Any surface holes for film cooling are drilled using precise, electrochemical, electrodischarge, waterjet, or
laser machining
14. Some machining may be needed on root (fir tree) for placement on wheel or drum. After this expensive and
long multi-step process, blades are ready for installation.
 HIGH FUEL TO AIR PROBLEM / CHALLENGE
To increase specific thrust, future engines will
increase overall fuel-air ratios
JSF affected Flow Direction

JSF

Compressor Combustor Turbine

F119
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

PW229

EMISSIONS INTO EXHAUST SURFACE

TURBINE MIGRATION HEAT FLUX IMPACT
F119-100 1st ROTOR
F119-100 1st ROTOR
BOAS: BLADE OUTER AIR SEAL
BLADE OUTER AIR SEAL POST EVENT
DETAIL
TURBINE ROTOR BLADE FAILURE (ROLLS-ROYCE)
 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
What is impact to turbine surfaces due to secondary reactions?

What is change in surface heat flux due to a local reaction over a range of
operating conditions
What is influence of blowing ratio, B?
What is influence of the total fuel content, E?
What is influence of flow and chemical time scales, Da = flow/chem?
Etc

What if you knew answers?

How do you use this information?
How to incorporate into a design system framework?
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Fuel rich air flow

Air-Side Injection

Heat Flux Gauges

Nitrogen-Side Injection
 EFFECT OF LOCAL REACTION
B = 1.0, Da = 13, CO = 65,000 ppm (Moderate Energy Content)
1.E+06
Air Side
Nitrogen Side
Correlation
Predicted Cooling
1.E+06
Downstream
Heat Flux, W/m2

8.E+05
25%
Upstream
6.E+05

Coolant Injection at x/D = 0

4.E+05
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Position, x/D

25% augmentation over inert side

Cooled side injection agrees to within 10% of literature values and correlation
 CFD STUDY: B = 0.5 (ATTACHED JET)
TOTAL TEMPERATURE CONTOURS Tflame = 1840 K
2780 1800
Da < 1
2492 1640 Maximum Temperature = 1200 K, 0 % of potential (cold flow)

2204 1480

1916 1320
A-A A-A: x/D = 10
1628 1160

1340 1000
Da > 1
1052 840 Maximum Temperature = 1715 K, 80 % of potential
764 680

476 520

Note maximum wall heat release at z/D = +/- 0.5

188 360
x/D = 10
-100 200

F K
 CFD STUDY: B = 2.0 (LIFTED JET)
TOTAL TEMPERATURE CONTOURS Tflame = 1840 K
2780 1800
Da < 1
2492 1640 Maximum Temperature = 1200 K, 0 % of potential (cold flow)

2204 1480

1916 1320

1628 1160
x/D = 10
1340 1000

1052 840 Da > 1

Maximum Temperature = 1683 K, 75 % of potential
764 680

476 520

188 360
Note maximum wall heat release at z/D = 0.0 x/D = 10
-100 200

F K
IN-LINE AND STAGGERED HOLE GEOMETRIES
Numerical studies extended to engine conditions

2500 B = 1.0, Da = 0.3, H* = 0.54, Qs ~ 0%

2100

1700

B = 1.0, Da = 0.3, H* = 0.54, Qs ~ 70%

1300

900 K

Staggered hole (z/D~3) at low B (0.5-1.0) provides good surface

protection: burning is kept off-surface, > 0.15
 ENGINE BEARINGS AND ARRANGEMENTS
Engines are unusual among engineering structures in that such a large fraction of
their total mass is rotating at high speed
This large rotating mass must be supported on bearings to maintain close
clearances between blade tips and stationary casing
On order of 1 mm on a rotor of 1 m diameter, or 1 part in 10 3

All existing engines use ball and roller bearings to support the rotating assemblies
 BEARING TYPES
Each rotating spool is supported by one ball bearing
Positions spool axially
Absorbs radial loads

Each rotating spool also supported by one or more roller bearings

Accepts radial loads
Allows axial movements to accommodate thermal expansion and structural
deformations

Also provides location for squeeze films for damping

Increases speed at which rotor can operate
Decreases vibrations
 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES: THERMAL STRESSES

Beam constrained by two unmovable walls

Heat added at some location
When material gets hotter, volume expands (thermal expansion)
But no room for body to move since constrained by both walls
Compressive stress is induced in material to produce a strain that cancels thermal
expansion

If body is locally cooled thermal contraction induced tensile stress

EXAMPLE OF THERMAL STRESSES
ZOOM IN TO SEE DETAILS

Bearing locations

Mechanism to vary
compressor stator angles
ROTATING SHAFT DYNAMICS: SIMPLE MODELS
Simplified spring mass damper model

Very large amplitudes possible

if near critical frequencies
DISK DESIGN