Water Resources

Important of Water
Water covers over 70% of the
Earth's surface and is a very
important resource for people and
the environment. However,
Water pollution affects drinking
water, rivers, lakes and oceans all
over the world.
This consequently harms human
health and the natural environment.
 Water Resources

Water resources are sources of

water that are useful or potentially
useful to humans. It is important
because it is needed for life to exist.
 Sources Of Fresh Water

Surface Water
Sub-Surface Water
Desalination
Frozen Water
 Surface Water
Surface water is water in a river
, lake or fresh water wetland.
Surface water is naturally
replenished by precipitation and
naturally lost through discharge
to the oceans, evaporation, and
sub-surface seepage.
Surface waters are the natural water resources of
the Earth. They are found on the exterior of the
Earth's crust and include:

Oceans
Rivers
Lakes

These waters can become polluted in a number

of ways, and this is called surface water
pollution.
 Sub-Surface Water
Sub-Surface water, or groundwater , is fresh
water located in the pore space of soil and
rocks.
It is also the water that is flowing within the
aquifers located below the water table.
Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction
between sub-surface water that is closely
associated with surface water and deep
sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes
called "fossil water").
 - is water located beneath the
ground surface in soil pore
spaces and in the fractures of
lithologic formations.
A unit of rock or an
unconsolidated deposit is
called an aquifer when it can
yield a usable quantity of water.
The depth at which soil pore
spaces or fractures and voids
in rock become fully saturated
with water is called the
water table.
A lot of the Earth's water is found underground in
soil or under rock structures called aquifers.
Humans often use aquifers as a means to obtain
drinking water, and build wells to access it.
When this water becomes polluted it is called
groundwater pollution. Groundwater pollution is
often caused by pesticide contamination from the
soil, which can infect the drinking water and
cause huge health problems.
 Ground Water Aquifers
What is an aquifer?

It is an underground layer of water-

bearing permeable rock or
unconsolidated material (gravel, sand,
silt, or clay) from which groundwater
can be usefully extracted using a water
well or known as deep well.
The study of water flow in aquifer and
the characterization of aquifer is called
 Water well can be drilled into the aquifers and water
can be pumped out.
Precipitation eventually adds water (recharge) into
the porous rock of the aquifer.
The rate of recharge is not the same for all aquifers,
and that must be considered when pumping water
from a well.
Pumping more water too fast draws down the water
in the aquifer and eventually causes a well to yield
less and less water and even run dry. In fact,
pumping your well too fast can even cause your
neighbor's well to run dry if you both are pumping
from the same aquifer.
the ground below the water table (the blue area) is
saturated with water.
The "unsaturated zone" above the water table (the
greenish area) still contains water (after all, plants'
roots live in this area), but it is not totally saturated
with water.
 Desalination
Desalination is an artificial process by which
saline water (generally ocean water) is
converted to fresh water. The most common
desalination processes are distillation and
reverse osmosis . Desalination is currently
very expensive compared to most
alternative sources of water, and only a very
small fraction of total human use is satisfied
by desalination. It is only economically
practical for high-valued uses (such as
household and industrial uses) in arid areas.
The most extensive use is in the
Persian Gulf .
 Frozen Water
Several schemes have been
proposed to make use of
icebergs as a water source,
however, to date this has only
been done for novelty purposes.
Glacier runoff is considered to be
surface water.
 Uses Of Fresh Water
Uses of fresh water can be categorized as
consumptive and non-consumptive
(sometimes called "renewable").
- A use of water is consumptive, if that
water is not immediately available for
another use. Such as, losses to sub-
surface seepage and evaporation are
considered consumptive, as is water
incorporated into a product (such as farm
produce).
- Water that can be treated and returned
as surface water, such as sewage, is
generally considered non-consumptive , if
that water can be put to additional use.
 Uses Of Fresh Water
Agricultural
Industrial
Household
Recreational
Environmental Activities
 Agricultural
It is estimated that 69% of world-wide water use
is for irrigation. In some areas of the world
irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all.
Various irrigation methods involve different
trade-offs between crop yield, water
consumption and capital cost of equipment and
structures.
Irrigation methods such as most furrow and
overhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less
expensive but also less efficient, because much
of the water evaporates or runs off.
More efficient irrigation methods include
drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and
some types of sprinkler systems where the
sprinklers are operated near ground level.
 Agricultural
Aquaculture is a small but
growing agricultural use of
water. Freshwater commercial
fisheries may also be considered
as agricultural uses of water, but
have generally been assigned a
lower priority than irrigation.
 Industrial
It is estimated that 15% of world-wide
water use is industrial. Major industrial
users include power plants, which use
water for cooling or as a power source (i.e.
hydroelectric plants), ore and oil
refineries, which use water in chemical
processes, and manufacturing plants,
which use water as a solvent.
The portion of industrial water usage that
is consumptive varies widely, but as a
whole is lower than agricultural use.
 Household
It is estimated that 15% of world-wide
water use is for household purposes.
These include drinking water, bathing,
cooking, sanitation, and gardening.
Basic household water requirements
have been estimated at around 10
liters per day, excluding water for
gardens.
Some areas, most household water is
treated and returned to surface water
systems, with the exception of water
used for landscapes.
 Recreational
Recreational water use is usually a very
small but growing percentage of total
water usage.
Recreational water use is mostly tied to
reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller
than it would otherwise be for
recreation, then the water retained could
be categorized as recreational usage.
Recreational water usage examples are
indoor and outdoor swimming pool for
various water sports.
 Environmental
Environmental water usage includes
artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended
to create wildlife habitat, fish ponds
around dams, and water releases from
reservoirs timed to help fish spawn.
Like recreational usage, environmental
usage is considered non-consumptive, but
may reduce the availability of water for
other users at specific times and places.
For example, water release from a
reservoir to help fish spawn may not be
available to farms upstream.
 Wastewater

It is a sewage, stormwater, and water that have

been used for various purposes around the
community.
Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such
as human waste, food scraps, oils, soaps and
chemicals.
In homes, this includes water from sinks, showers,
bathtubs, toilets, washing machines and dishwashers.
Businesses and industries also contribute their share
of used water that must be cleaned.
Wastewater also includes storm runoff. Although
some people assume that the rain that runs down the
street during a storm is fairly clean, it isn't.
Sources of wastewater
Municipal wastewater - includes all waste under the control of local
authorities or agents acting on their behalf.
Schools
Street litter
Civic amenity site waste
Municipal parks
Hotels
Garden wastes
Council office waste

Industrial wastewater
Airport glycol deicing
Rendering plants
Tire fire wastewater
Fish culture wastewater
Dairies
Metal plating industries
Oily bilges
Agricultural
Animal wastes both liquid and solid, The piggery waste is
comparable to other animal wastes except that many piggery
wastes contain elevated levels of copper that can be toxic in
the natural environment. Ascraid worms and their eggs are also
common and can infect humans.
Silage liquor Fresh or wilted grass or other crops can be
made into the semi fermented product called Silage which can
be stored and used as winter forage for cattle and sheep. The
production of silage often involves the use of a n acid
conditioner such as sulfuric acid or formic acid. The process of
silage making frequently produces yellow-brown strongly
smelling liquid which is very rich in simple sugars, alcohol,
short-chain organic acids and silage conditioner.
Pesticide run off and surpluses Inappropriate use of
pesticides so that pesticide-containing wastewaters enter the
environment can give rise to severe and long lasting ecological
damage.
 Milking parlor wastes Although milk has deserved reputation as an
important and valuable food product, its presence in wastewaters is
highly polluting because of its organic strength, which can lead to very
rapid de-oxygenation of receiving waters. Milking parlor wastes also
contain very large volumes of wash-down water, some animal waste
together with cleaning and disinfection chemicals.

Slaughtering wastes wastewater from slaughtering activities is

similar to milking parlor waste although considerably stronger in its
organic composition and therefore potentially much more polluting.

Vegetable washing water washing of vegetables produces large

volumes of water contaminated by soil and vegetable pieces. Low
levels of pesticides used to treat the vegetables may also be present
together with moderate levels of disinfectants such as chlorine.

Fire water Few farms plan for fires, fires are nevertheless more
common on farms than on many other industrial premises.
 Characteristics of wastewater
Municipal
gray color, musty odor
contains organic components
Industrial
dependent on processes that produce a water
based waste water
Agricultural
Relates to the treatment of wastewaters
produced in the course of agricultural
activities.
How wastewater affects people
The water we use never really goes away.

- Wastewater generated each day from homes, farms,

businesses, and factories eventually returns to the
environment to be used again.
- When wastewater receives inadequate treatment, the
overall quality of the worlds water supply suffers.
- Locally, the amount of wastewater homes and
communities produce, its characteristics, and how it is
handled can greatly impact residents quality of life.
- Wastewater has the potential to affect public health,
the local economy, recreation, residential, and other
aspects of everyday life.
Tests used in wastewater
treatment
Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Biochemical (biological) oxygen demand is a test used to

measure the concentration of biodegradable organic matter
present in a sample of water. It can be used to infer the general
quality of the water and its degree of pollution . and,

BOD, is a measure of the quantity of oxygen consumed by

microorganisms during the decomposition of organic matter.
BOD can also be used to evaluate the efficiency of treatment
processes, and is an indirect measure of biodegradable organic
compounds in water.

BOD is similar in function to chemical oxygen demand

(COD), in that both measure the amount of organic
compounds in water. However, COD is less specific since it
measures everything that can be chemically oxidized rather
than just levels of Biology active organic matter.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
COD test is used to measure the condition of organic matter
that can be oxidized is measured by using strong chemical
oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Potassium dichromate has
been found to be excellent for this purpose.

The test must be performed at an elevated temperature. A

catalyst (silver sulfate) is required to aid the oxidation of
certain classes of organic compounds.

COD test is also used to measure the organic matter in

industrial and municipal waste that contain compounds that are
toxic to biological life.

COD of a waste is, in general, higher than the BOD because

more compounds can be chemically oxidized than can be
biologically oxidized.
Total Coliforms and Fecal Coliforms
Coliform tests are useful for determining whether wastewater has
been adequately treated and whether water quality is suitable for
drinking and recreation. Because they are very abundant in human
wastes, coliform bacteria are much easier to locate and identify in
wastewater than viruses and other pathogens that cause severe
diseases.
For this reason, coliform bacteria are used as indicator organisms for
the presence of other, more serious pathogens. Some coliforms are
found in soil, so tests for fecal coliforms are considered to be the most
reliable.

There are two methods for determining the presence and density of
coliform bacteria.
The membrane filter (MF) technique provides a direct count of
colonies trapped and then cultured, The multiple tube fermentation
method provides an estimate of the most probable number (MPN) per
100 milliliters from the number of test tubes in which gas bubbles
form after incubation.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is required for the respiration of aerobic
microorganisms as well as all other aerobic life forms. However,
oxygen is only slightly soluble in water.
The actual quantity of oxygen (other gases too) that can be present in
solution is governed by (1) the solubility of the gas, (2) the partial
pressure of the gas in the atmosphere, (3) the temperature, and (4) the
purity (salinity, suspended solids, etc.) of the water. The
interrelationship of these variables is delineated where the effect of the
temperature and salinity on dissolved oxygen concentrations is
presented.
Because the rate of biochemical reactions that use oxygen
increases with increasing temperature, dissolved-oxygen levels tend to
be more critical in the summer months. The problem is compounded in
summer months because streams flows are usually lower, thus the total
quantity of oxygen available is lower. The presence of dissolved
oxygen in wastewater is desirable because it prevents the formation of
noxious odors. The role of oxygen in wastewater treatment is 8 and 10:
it is importance in water-quality management.
Total suspended solids

The total suspended solids, estimating the amount of the

suspended solids in wastewater helps to complete an
overall picture of how much secondary treatment is
likely to be required. It also indicates wastewater clarity
and is important for assessing the potential impact of
wastewater on the environment. After larger solids are
removed in primary treatment, TSS is measured as the
portion of solids retain by a 2.0 micron filter.

Total suspended solids is a water quality

measurement usually abbreviated TSS. This parameter
was at one time called non-filterable residue (NFR), a
term that refers to the identical measurement: the dry-
weight of particles trapped by a filter, typically of a
specified pore size.
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (TOD)

Organic matter of animal or vegetable origin in

wastewater is generally a combination of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The principal groups of
these elements present in wastewater are as, previously
noted, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and products of their
decomposition.

Concentrations of inorganic constituents also are

increased by the natural substance in the water. Because
concentrations of various inorganic constituents can
greatly affect the beneficial uses made of the waters, it is
well to examine the nature of some of the constituents,
particularly those added to surface water via the use cycle.
Alkalinity

Alkalinity in wastewater results from the presence

of the hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates of the
elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc.
The alkalinity in wastewater helps to resist changes in
pH caused by the addition of the acids. Wastewater is
normally alkaline, receiving its alkalinity from the
water supply, the groundwater, and the materials
added during domestic use.

Alkalinity is determined by titrating against a standard

acid, the results are expressed in terms of calcium
carbonate. The concentration of alkalinity in
wastewater is important where chemical treatment is
used to be in biological nutrient removal and where
the ammonia is to be removed by air stripping.
 TYPES OF WATER
POLLUTION
Water pollution can come from a
number of different sources.

If, the pollution comes from a single

source, such as an oil spill, it is
called point-source pollution.
If, the pollution comes from many
sources, it is called nonpoint-
source pollution.
Most types of pollution affect the
immediate area surrounding the
source. Sometimes the pollution
may affect the environment
hundreds of miles away from the
source, such as nuclear waste, this
is called transboundary pollution.
Microbiological water pollution is usually a natural
form of water pollution caused by microorganisms.
Many types of microorganisms live in water and
cause fish, land animals and humans to become ill.
Microorganisms such as:
Bacteria
Viruses
Protozoa
Serious diseases such as cholera come from
microorganisms that live in water. These diseases
usually affect the health of people in poorer
countries, as they do not have the facilities to treat
polluted water.
Industrial and agricultural work involves
the use of many different chemicals that
can run-off into water and pollute it.

Metals and solvents from industrial work can

pollute rivers and lakes. These are poisonous to
many forms of aquatic life and may slow their
development, make them infertile or even result
in death.
 Pesticides are used in farming to control weeds,
insects and fungi. Run-offs of these pesticides
can cause water pollution and poison aquatic
life. Subsequently, birds, humans and other
animals may be poisoned if they eat infected
fish.

Petroleum is another form of chemical pollutant

that usually contaminates water through oil
spills when a ship ruptures. Oil spills usually
have only a localized affect on wildlife but can
spread for miles. The oil can cause the death of
many fish and stick to the feathers of seabirds
causing them to lose the ability to fly.
 Some
pollutants do
not dissolve
in water as their molecules are too
big to mix between the water
molecules. This material is called
particulate matter and can often
be a cause of water pollution
 The suspended particles eventually
settle and cause a thick silt at the
bottom. This is harmful to marine life
that lives on the floor of rivers or lakes.
Biodegradable substances are often
suspended in water and can cause
problems by increasing the amount of
anaerobic microorganisms present.
Toxic chemicals suspended in water can
be harmful to the development and
survival of aquatic life.
Nutrients are essential for plant growth and
development. Many nutrients are found in
wastewater and fertilizers, and these can cause
excess weed and algae growth if large
concentrations end up in water.

This can contaminate drinking water and clog filters.

This can be damaging to other aquatic organisms as the algae
use up the oxygen in the water, leaving none for the
surrounding marine life.
Microorganisms that live in water
feed on biodegradable substances.
When too much biodegradable
material is added to water, the
number of microorganisms increase
and use up the available oxygen. This
is called oxygen depletion.
When oxygen levels in the water are
depleted, relatively harmless aerobic
microorganisms die and anaerobic
microorganisms begin to thrive. Some
anaerobic microorganisms are harmful
to people, animals and the
environment, as they produce harmful
toxins such as ammonia and sulfides.
 In the study of groundwater contamination, however,
toxic chemicals are the principal pollutants of concern. The
25 most frequently detected contaminants found in
groundwater at hazardous waste sites are listed in Table
5.14. Nine of these contaminants are inorganic: lead (Pb),
chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd),
manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), barium (Ba), and nickel (Ni).
Rank Contaminant 13 trans-1,2-Dichloroethene

1 Trichloroethylene 14 Cadmium

2 Lead 15 Manganese

3 Tetrachloroethylene 16 Copper

4 Benzene 17 1,1-Dichloroethene

5 Toluene 18 Vinyl chloride

6 Chromium 19 Barium

7 Methylene Chloride 20 1,2-Dichloroethane

8 Zinc 21 Ethylbenzene

9 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 22 Nickel

10 Arsenic 23 Di(2-ethylhexy)phthalate

11 Chloroform 24 Xylenes

12 1,1-Dichloroethane 25 Phenol
 Many of the organic chemicals listed in Table
5.14 do not dissolve very well in water. They are called
non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs), and their
presence makes the task of restoring an aquifer to
drinking-water quality very difficult or even
impossible. NAPLs are generally divided into two
categories: Those that are more dense than water are
called dense NAPLs, or DNAPLs, while those that are
less dense than water are called light NAPLs, or
LNAPLs.
 DNAPLs LNAPLs
Pollutant Specific Aqueous Pollutant Specific Aqueous
Gravity Solubility Gravity Solubility
(mg/L) (mg/L)

Carbon 1.58 7.57 x 102 Benzene 0.873 1.75 x 103

tetrachloride

Trichloroethylene 1.47 1.10 x 103 Toluene 0.862 5.35 x 102

Tetrachloroethylene 1.63 1.50 x 102 P-Xylene 0.861 1.98 x 102

Phenol 1.24 9.3 x 102

>>Nonaqueous-phase liquids do not dissolve very well in

groundwater:
(a) LNAPLs float on top of groundwater;
(b) DNAPLs form pools.
 Potential Groundwater Contamination Sources

Place of
Municipal Industrial Agricultural Individual
Origin
*Air pollution *Air pollution *Air pollution *Air pollution
At *Municipal waste *Chemicals: *Chemical spills *Fertilizers
Landspreading storage and spills *Fertilizers *Homes
Or
*Salts for deicing *Fuels: storage *Livestock waste: cleaners
streets and spills storage facility
Near detergents
*Streets and *Mine tailing piles and landspreading motor oils
the parking lots *Pesticides paints
Land *Pesticides

Surface

Below *Landfills *Pipelines *Underground *Septic systems

*Leaky sewer lines *Underground storage tanks *Wells: poorly
storage tanks *Wells: poorly constructed or
the
constructed or abandoned
abandoned
Land

Surface
Sewage and Wastewater
Domestic households, industrial and
agricultural practices produce
wastewater that can cause pollution of
many lakes and rivers.

Sewage is the term used for wastewater that

often contains feces, urine and laundry waste.
There are billions of people on Earth, so
treating sewage is a big priority.
Sewage disposal is a major problem in
developing countries as many people in these
areas dont have access to sanitary conditions
and clean water.
 Untreated sewage water in such areas can
contaminate the environment and cause diseases
such as diarrhea.
Sewage in developed countries is carried away from
the home quickly and hygienically through sewage
pipes.
Sewage is treated in water treatment plants and the
waste is often disposed into the sea.
Sewage is mainly biodegradable and most of it is
broken down in the environment.
In developed countries, sewage often causes
problems when people flush chemical and
pharmaceutical substances down the toilet. When
people are ill, sewage often carries harmful viruses
and bacteria into the environment causing health
problems.
 Industrial Wastes

Industry is a huge source of water

pollution, it produces pollutants
that are extremely harmful to
people and the environment.
Many industrial facilities use
freshwater to carry away waste from
the plant and into rivers, lakes and
oceans.
 Pollutants from industrial sources include:
Asbestos This pollutant is a serious health hazard
and carcinogenic. Asbestos fibers can be inhaled and
cause illnesses such as asbestosis, mesothelioma,
lung cancer, intestinal cancer and liver cancer.
Lead This is a metallic element and can cause
health and environmental problems. It is a non-
biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once
the environment is contaminated. Lead is harmful to
the health of many animals, including humans, as it
can inhibit the action of bodily enzymes.
Mercury - This is a metallic element and can cause
health and environmental problems. It is a non-
biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once
the environment is contaminated. Mercury is also
harmful to animal health as it can cause illness
through mercury poisoning.
 Nitrates The increased use of fertilizers means that nitrates are
more often being washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes.
This can cause eutrophication, which can be very problematic to
marine environments.
Phosphates - The increased use of fertilizers means that
phosphates are more often being washed from the soil and into
rivers and lakes. This can cause eutrophication, which can be
very problematic to marine environments.
Sulfur This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for
marine life.
Oils Oil does not dissolve in water, instead it forms a thick
layer on the water surface. This can stop marine plants receiving
enough light for photosynthesis. It is also harmful for fish and
marine birds.
Petrochemicals This is formed from gas or petrol and can be
toxic to marine life.
 Oil Pollution
Oceans are polluted by oil on a daily basis from
oil spills, routine shipping, run-offs and
dumping.
Oil spills make up about 12% of the oil that enters the
ocean. The rest come from shipping travel, drains and
dumping.
An oil spill from a tanker is a severe problem because
there is such a huge quantity of oil being spilt into one
place.
Oil spills cause a very localized problem but can be
catastrophic to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds
and sea otters.
Oil cannot dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge in
the water. This suffocates fish, gets caught in the
feathers of marine birds stopping them from flying
and blocks light from photosynthetic aquatic plants.
Atmospheric Deposition
Atmospheric deposition is the pollution of
water caused by air pollution.
In the atmosphere, water particles mix with
carbon dioxide sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides, this forms a weak acid.
Air pollution means that water vapor absorbs
more of these gases and becomes even more
acidic.
When it rains the water is polluted with these
gases, this is called acid rain.
When acid rain pollutes marine habitats such as
rivers and lakes, aquatic life is harmed.
 Eutrophication
Eutrophication is when the environment
becomes enriched with nutrients. This
can be a problem in marine habitats such
as lakes as it can cause algal blooms.

Fertilizers are often used in farming, sometimes

these fertilizers run-off into nearby water
causing an increase in nutrient levels.
This causes phytoplankton to grow and
reproduce more rapidly, resulting in algal
blooms.
This bloom of algae disrupts normal ecosystem
functioning and causes many problems.
 The algae may use up all the oxygen in the
water, leaving none for other marine life. This
results in the death of many aquatic organisms
such as fish, which need the oxygen in the
water to live.

The bloom of algae may also block sunlight

from photosynthetic marine plants under the
water surface.

Some algae even produce toxins that are

harmful to higher forms of life. This can cause
problems along the food chain and affect any
animal that feeds on them.
Effect on Global Warming
An increase in water temperature can
result in the death of many aquatic
organisms and disrupt many marine
habitats. For example, a rise in water
temperatures causes coral bleaching of
reefs around the world. This is when the
coral expels the microorganisms of which
it is dependent on. This can result in great
damage to coral reefs and subsequently,
all the marine life that depends on it.
The rise in the Earth's water
temperature is caused by global
warming.
Global warming is a process where the
average global temperature increases due
to the greenhouse effect.
The burning of fossil fuel releases
greenhouse gasses, such as carbon
dioxide, into the atmosphere.
This causes heat from the sun to get
trapped in the Earths atmosphere and
consequently the global temperature rises.
 Underground Storage
Leakages
A tank or piping network that has at least
10 percent of its volume underground is
known as an underground storage tank
(UST). They often store substances such as
petroleum, that are harmful to the
surrounding environment should it become
contaminated. Many USTs constructed
before 1980 are made from steel pipes that
are directly exposed to the environment.
Over time the steel corrodes and causes
leakages, affecting surrounding soil and
groundwater.
 Nuclear Waste
Nuclear waste is produced from
industrial, medical and scientific
processes that use radioactive
material. Nuclear waste can have
detrimental effects on marine
habitats. Nuclear waste comes from
a number of sources:
 Operations conducted by nuclear power stations
produce radioactive waste. Nuclear-fuel
reprocessing plants in northern Europe are the
biggest sources of man-made nuclear waste in
the surrounding ocean. Radioactive traces from
these plants have been found as far away as
Greenland.
Mining and refining of uranium and thorium are
also causes of marine nuclear waste.

-Waste is also produced in the nuclear fuel cycle

which is used in many industrial, medical and
scientific processes.
 Marine Dumping
Dumping of litter in the sea can
cause huge problems. Litter items
such as 6-pack ring packaging can
get caught in marine animals and
may result in death. Different items
take different lengths of time to
degrade in water:
 Cardboard Takes 2 weeks to degrade.
Newspaper Takes 6 weeks to degrade.
Photodegradable packaging Takes 6 weeks to
degrade.
Foam Takes 50 years to degrade.
Styrofoam Takes 80 years to degrade.
Aluminium Takes 200 years to degrade.
Plastic packaging Takes 400 years to degrade.
Glass It takes so long to degrade that we dont
know the exact time.
 Intro to Environmental Engineering

Water
Pollution
WATER QUALITY IN LAKES AND RESERVOIRS
CONTROLLING FACTORS IN EUTROPHICATION
A SIMPLE PHOSPHORUS MODEL
 Water Quality
in
Lakes and Reservoirs
All lakes gradually accumulate silt and
organic matter as they undergo a natural
aging process known as
Eutrophication.

EUTROPHICATION
Is a natural process that may
take thousands of years, it is possible
to accelerate greatly the rate of
change through human activities
this is called Cultural
Eutrophication.
 A young lake is characterized by a low nutrient
content and low plant productivity such
Oligotrophic ( few drops ) . Lakes
gradually acquire nutrients from their drainage basins,
which enables increased aquatic growth. Over time, the
lake becomes Eutrophic ( well fed ).
Controlling Factors
in
Eutrophication
There are many factors that control the rate of the
production of algae, including the availability of sunlight to
power the photosynthetic reactions, and the concentration
of nutrients required for growth.

The amount of light available is related to the

transparency of the water. An oligotrophic lake,
such as Lake Tahoe, may have enough sunlight to
allow significant rates of photosynthesis to take
place at a depth of 100m or more, while eutrophic
lakes maybe so murky that photosynthesis is
restricted to a thin layer of water very near the
surface.
Euphotic zone the top layer of water in lake
Profundal zone layer below the euphotic zone
Light compensation level - designated as the
transition between the two
zone.
 The list of nutrients that we might consider
controlling:
Carbon Sodium
Nitrogen Iron
Phosphorus Manganese
Sulfur Zinc
Calcium Copper
Magnesium Boron
Potassium Plus some other
essential nutrients
WATER POLLUTANTS
AND KINDS OF
WATER POLLUTION
 WATER POLLUTANTS
Pathogens
Oxygen-demanding wastes
Nutrients
Salts
Heavy metals
Pesticides
Volatile organic compounds
 PATHOGENS
Pathogens are disease-causing
organisms that grow and multiply
within the host. The resulting growth
of microorganisms in a host is called
an infection.
pathogens associated with water
include protozoa, bacteria, and
viruses.
 PATHOGENS
Protozoal infections
Protozoan parasites are small microorganisms
inhabiting the intestinal tracts of humans and
animals. Protozoa cells generally range in size from
about 1 to 300 microns. Cryptosporidium parvum and
Giardia lamblia are the two of greatest concern in
drinking water and can be found worldwide. Giardia
lamblia infects humans and numerous animals,
including cats, dogs, beavers, and muskrats. Giardia
infection is a concern for people swimming in or
drinking from contaminated streams or lakes.
 PATHOGENS
Protozoal
infections
 PATHOGENS
Bacteria
Bacteria are ubiquitous on the earth. They are
small and vary in size from 0.1 to 10 microns.
Some of the common waterborne bacterial
pathogens are Escherichia coli (E. coli),
Salmonella typhi, and Vibrio cholerae. Human
sewage is the major source for Escherichia coli (E.
coli) in contaminated waters and is a common
cause of travelers diarrhea. Outbreaks
associated with Salmonella involve both drinking
water and recreational water. Salmonella typhi
causes an enteric fever, typhoid fever, which was
the top cause of waterborne disease, Vibrio
cholerae causes a serious and acute intestinal
disease called cholera.
 PATHOGENS
Bacteria
 PATHOGENS
Viruses
The contamination of surface water by enteric
viruses appears to be ubiquitous. The typical size of
viruses is between 0.04 and 0.1 micron, which is
much smaller than bacteria.
More than 140 different enteric viruses are known to
infect humans, including hepatitis A virus (HAV),
rotavirus, and enterovirus. HAV is the infectious
hepatitis virus is transmitted in fecally contaminated
water and food. Rotavirus is thought to be another
primary cause of travelers diarrhea, and has been
detected in fresh water and sewage. Enteroviruses
cause a wide variety of illnesses, ranging from polio
to the common cold. Polio is also a very serious
disease, which can lead to paralysis or even death.
 PATHOGENS
Virus
 OXYGEN-DEMANDING
WASTES
One of the most important measures of the
quality of a water source is
the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present.
Oxygen-demanding wastes are substances that
oxidize in the receiving body of water. As
bacteria decompose these wastes, they utilize
oxygen dissolved in the water, which reduces
the remaining amount of DO. As DO drops, fish
and other aquatic life are threatened and, in the
extreme case, killed. In addition, as dissolved
oxygen levels fall, undesirable odors, tastes, and
colors reduce the acceptability of that water as a
domestic supply and reduce its attractiveness
for recreational uses.
 OXYGEN-DEMANDING
WASTES
Oxygen-demanding wastes are
usually biodegradable organic substances
contained in municipal wastewaters or in
effluents from certain industries, such as food
processing and paper production. In addition,
the oxidation of certain inorganic compounds
may also contribute to the oxygen demand.
Even naturally occurring organic matter, such
as leaves and animal droppings, that finds its
way into surface water contributes to
oxygen depletion.
 NUTRIENTS
Nutrients are chemicals, such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, carbon, sulfur, calcium, potassium,
iron, manganese, boron, and cobalt, that are
essential to the growth of living things. In terms of
water quality, nutrients can be considered as
pollutants when their concentrations are sufficient
to allow excessive growth of aquatic plants,
particularly algae. When nutrients stimulate the
growth of algae, the attractiveness of the body of
water for recreational uses, as a drinking water
supply, and as a viable habitat for other living
things
can be adversely affected.
 NUTRIENTS
Nutrient enrichment can lead to blooms of
algae, which eventually die and decompose.
Their decomposition removes oxygen from
the water,
potentially leading to levels of DO that are
insufficient to sustain normal life forms. Algae
and decaying organic matter add color,
turbidity, odors, and objectionable tastes to
water that are difficult to remove and that
may greatly reduce its acceptability as a
domestic
water source.
 SALTS
Water naturally accumulates a variety of dissolved solids, or
salts, as it passes through soils and rocks on its way to the
sea. These salts typically include such cations as sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and potassium, and anions such as
chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. While a careful analysis
of salinity would result in a list of the concentrations of the
primary cations and anions, a simpler, more commonly
used measure of salinity is the concentration of total
dissolved solids (TDS).
All naturally occurring water has some amount of salt in it
and many industries discharge high concentrations of salts.
While such human activities may increase salinity by adding
salts to a given volume of water, it is more often the
opposite process, the removal of freshwater by evaporation,
that causes salinity problems. When water evaporates, the
salts are left behind, and since there is less remaining
freshwater to dilute them, their concentration increases.
 SALTS
In rivers that are heavily used for irrigation, the salt
concentration progressively increases downstream as
the volume of water available to dilute salts
decreases due to evaporation and as the salt load
increases due to salty drainage water returning from
irrigated lands.
However, providing adequate drainage can be an
expensive and challenging task involving extensive
on-farm subsurface drainage systems coupled with a
central drain and disposal system. Since irrigation
return water contains not only salts but fertilizers and
pesticides as well, finding an acceptable method of
disposal is difficult.
 HEAVY METALS
Metal behavior in the aquatic (streams,
lakes and rivers) environment is surprisingly
similar to that outside a water body.
Streambed sediments exhibit the same
binding characteristics found in the normal
soil environment. As a result, many heavy
metals tend to be sequestered at the
bottom of water bodies. Some of these
metals will dissolve. The aquatic
environment is more susceptible to the
harmful effects of heavy metal pollution
because aquatic organisms are in close and
prolonged contact with the soluble metals
 PESTICIDES
The term pesticide is used to cover a
range of chemicals that kill organisms that
humans consider undesirable. Pesticides
can be delineated as insecticides,
herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides.
There are three main groups of synthetic
organic insecticides: organochlorines (also
known as chlorinated hydrocarbons),
organophosphates, and carbamates.
PESTICIDES
 VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are among
the most commonly found contaminants in
groundwater. They are often used as solvents
in industrial processes, and a number of them
are either known or suspected carcinogens or
mutagens.
Five VOCs are especially toxic, and their
presence in drinking water is cause for special
concern: vinyl chloride, tetrachloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, 1,2-dichloroethane, and
carbon tetrachloride.
 VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
The most toxic of the five is vinyl chloride
(chloroethylene). It is a known human carcinogen used
primarily in the production of polyvinyl chloride resins.
Tetrachloroethylene is used as a solvent, as a heat
transfer medium, and in the manufacture of
chlorofluorocarbons. It causes tumors in animals, but
there is inadequate evidence to call it a human
carcinogen. Of the five, it is the one most commonly
found in groundwater.
Tetrachloroethylene Cl2C=CCl2 is a manufactured
chemical compound that is widely used for the dry
cleaning of fabrics and for metal-degreasing. Of the
five, it is the one most commonly found in groundwater.
 VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a solvent that was
quite
commonly used to clean everything from
electronics parts to jet engines and septic tanks.
Among the five VOCs it is the most frequently
found contaminants in groundwater.
Carbon tetrachloride was a common household
cleaning agent that is now more often used in
grain fumigants, fire extinguishers, and
solvents. It is very toxic if ingested. It
is relatively insoluble in water, however, and so
it is only
occasionally found in contaminated
groundwater.
 KINDS OF WATER
POLLUTION
Eutrophication
Hypoxia
Marine pollution
Thermal pollution
Ocean acidification
Oil spill
Surface runoff
 EUTROPHICATION
Eutrophication, strictly speaking, means an
increase in chemical nutrients-- typically
compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus --
in an ecosystem.
Eutrophication has relevant effects on water
bodies: the main are algal blooming, excessive
aquatic macrophyte growth and oxygen
depletion. Further consequences for human
activities are: the decrease of water quality,
aesthetic flow and navigation water problems and
extinction in some water bodies of some oxygen
depending organisms or animals.
 HYPOXIA
Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a
phenomenon that occurs in aquatic
environments as dissolved oxygen (DO)
becomes reduced in concentration to a
point detrimental to aquatic organisms
living in the system. Dissolved oxygen is
typically expressed as a percentage of
the oxygen that would dissolve in the
water at the prevailing temperature and
salinity .
 MARINE POLLUTION
Nowadays, many of the materials that make up items
thrown away as garbage are not biodegradable. They do
not decay or disappear so they are potentially harmful to
human and marine life for a very long time. Garbage can
create an impossible place for marine creatures to live. It
can be fatal. Fish, water birds and other marine life can
be killed by mistakenly eating plastic materials floating in
the water. Marine animals such as turtles and whales can
die because they mistake a discarded plastic bag for a
jelly fish - something they like to eat. Seabirds, seals,
turtles and fish can become entangled in plastic lines
which trap and slowly strangle them.
 THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is a temperature change
in natural water bodies caused by human
influence. The main cause of thermal
pollution is the use of water as a coolant,
especially in power plants. Water used as a
coolant is returned to the natural
environment at a higher temperature.
Increases in water temperature can impact
on aquatic organisms by (a) decreasing
oxygen supply, (b) killing fish juveniles
which are vulnerable to small increases in
temperature, and (c) affecting ecosystem
composition.
Objective of wastewater treatment

To remove as much as suspended solids as

possible before the remaining water, called
effluent is discharged back to the environment
and receiving bodies.
It is to remove as much of the floating and
biodegradable pollutants and disease-causing
agents in wastewater as possible to minimize
the risks to public health and impact on the
environment.
There are numerous variations on the treatment plant
theme, but they all work to achieve the same goals:
1. remove sludge and scum so they don't accumulate in
rivers where the water is discharged,
2. prevent oxygen-demanding organic material from
entering rivers where it kills aquatic life by stealing
oxygen,
3. prevent odors created in water lacking enough
dissolved oxygen, and
4. Remove potential disease-causing bacteria and
viruses (pathogens).
Priority in wastewater treatme
nt
Sewage treatment, or domestic
wastewater treatment, is the process of
removing contaminants from wastewater,
both runoff and domestic. It includes
physical, chemical and biological
processes to remove physical, chemical
and biological contaminants. Its objective
is to produce a waste stream (or treated
effluent) and a solid waste or sludge also
suitable for discharge or reuse back into
the environment. This material is often
inadvertently contaminated with toxic
organic and inorganic compounds.
Sewage is created by residences,
institutions, and commercial and industrial
establishments. It can be treated close to
where it is created (in septic tanks,
Biofilters or aerobic treatment systems), or
collected and transported via a network of
pipes and pump stations to a municipal
treatment plant. Sewage collection and
treatment is typically subject to local, state
and federal regulations and standards (
regulation and controls). Industrial sources
of wastewater often require specialized
treatment processes.
Typically, sewage treatment involves three
stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment. First, the solids are separated from
the wastewater stream. Then dissolved
biological matter is progressively converted into
a solid mass by using indigenous, water-borne
bacteria. Finally, the biological solids are
neutralized then disposed of or re-used, and the
treated water may be disinfected chemically or
physically (for example by lagoons and micro-
filtration). The final effluent can be discharged
into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or
it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course,
green way or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it
can also be used for groundwater recharge.
Description
Raw influent (sewage) is the liquid waste
from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks
etc. Household waste that is disposed of
via sewers. In many areas sewage also
includes some liquid waste from industry
and commerce. In the United Kingdom, the
waste from toilets is termed foul waste,
the waste from items such as basins, baths,
kitchens is termed sullage water, and the
industrial and commercial waste is termed
trade waste.
The site where the raw wastewater
is processed before it is discharged
back to the environment is called a
wastewater treatment plant
(WWTP). The order and types of
mechanical, chemical and
biological systems that comprise
the wastewater treatment plant
are typically the same for most
developed countries:
Mechanical treatment;
Influx (Influent)
Removal of large objects
Removal of sand and grit
Pre-precipitation
Biological treatment;
Oxidation bed (oxidizing bed) or
aeration system
Post precipitation
Effluent
Chemical treatment
Treatment
stages
I. Primary treatment
Primary treatment removes the
materials that can be easily collected
from the raw wastewater and disposed
of. The typical materials that are
removed during primary treatment
include to fats, oils, and greases (also
referred to as FOG), sand, gravels and
rocks (also referred to as grit), larger
settleable solids including human waste,
and floating materials. This step is done
entirely with machinery, hence the name
mechanical treatment.
a.)Influx (influent) and removal of large
objects

In the mechanical treatment, the influx

(influent) of sewage water is strained to
remove all large objects that are
deposited in the sewer system, such as
rags, sticks, sanitary towels, cans, fruit,
etc. This is most commonly done with a
manual or automated mechanically raked
screen. This type of waste is removed
because it can damage or clog the
equipment in the sewage treatment plant.
b.)Sand and grit removal
Primary treatment typically includes a sand or grit
channel or chamber where the velocity of the
incoming wastewater is carefully controlled to
allow sand grit and stones to settle, while keeping
the majority of the suspended organic material in
the water column. This equipment is called a
detritor or sand catcher. Sand grit and stones
need to be removed early in the process to avoid
damage to pumps and other equipment in the
remaining treatment stages. Sometimes there is a
sand washer (grit classifier) followed by a
conveyor that transports the sand to a container
for disposal. The contents from the sand catcher
may be fed into the incinerator in a sludge
processing plant, but in many cases, the sand and
grit is sent to a landfill.
c.)Sedimentation
Many plants have a sedimentation stage where
the sewage is allowed to pass slowly through
large tanks, commonly called "primary clarifiers"
or "primary sedimentation tanks". The tanks are
large enough that fecal solids can settle and
floating material such as grease and oils can rise
to the surface and be skimmed off. The main
purpose of the primary stage is to produce a
generally homogeneous liquid capable of being
treated biologically and a sludge that can be
separately treated or processed. Primary
settlement tanks are usually equipped with
mechanically driven scrapers that continually
drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in
the base of the tank from where it can be
pumped to further sludge treatment stages.
Primary sedimentation tank at a rural
treatment plant
II. Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade

the biological content of the sewage such as are derived from
human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority
of municipal and industrial plants treat the settled sewage
liquor using aerobic biological processes. For this to be
effective, the biota require both oxygen and a substrate on
which to live. There are number of ways in which this is done.
In all these methods, the bacteria and protozoa consume
biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars,
fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind
much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary
treatment systems are classified as fixed film or suspended
growth. Fixed-film treatment process including trickling filters
and rotating biological contactors where the biomass grows
on media and the sewage passes over its surface.
 In suspended growth systemssuch as activated
sludgethe biomass is well mixed with the sewage and
can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film
systems that treat the same amount of water. However,
fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic
changes in the amount of biological material and can
provide higher removal rates for organic material and
suspended filters
Roughing solids than suspended
are intended togrowth systems. strong or
treat particularly
variable organic loads, typically industrial, to allow them to
then be treated by conventional secondary treatment
processes. Characteristics include typically tall, circular filters
filled with open synthetic filter media to which wastewater is
applied at a relatively high rate. They are designed to allow
high hydraulic loading and a high flow-through of air. On larger
installations, air is forced through the media using blowers. The
resultant wastewater is usually within the normal range for
conventional treatment processes.
a.)Activated sludge
Activated sludge plants use a variety
of mechanisms and processes to use
dissolved oxygen to promote the
growth of biological floc that
substantially removes organic
material. It also traps particulate
material and can, under ideal
conditions, convert ammonia to
nitrite and nitrate ultimately to
nitrogen gas.
b.)Fluidized bed reactors
The carbon adsorption following biological
treatment was particularly effective in reducing
both the BOD and COD to low levels. A fluidized
bed reactor is a combination of the most common
stirred tank packed bed, continuous flow reactors.
It is very important to chemical engineering
because of its excellent heat and mass transfer
characteristics. In a fluidized bed reactor, the
substrate is passed upward through the
immobilized enzyme bed at a high velocity to lift
the particles. However the velocity must not be so
high that the enzymes are swept away from the
reactor entirely. This causes high mixing; these
type of reactors are highly suitable for the
exothermic reactions. It is most often applied in
immobilized enzyme catalysis.
c.)Filter beds (oxidising beds)

In older plants and plants receiving more variable loads,

trickling filter beds are used where the settled sewage
liquor is spread onto the surface of a deep bed made up of
coke (carbonised coal), limestone chips or specially
fabricated plastic media. Such media must have high
surface areas to support the biofilms that form. The liquor
is distributed through perforated rotating arms radiating
from a central pivot. The distributed liquor trickles through
this bed and is collected in drains at the base. These drains
also provide a source of air which percolates up through
the bed, keeping it aerobic. Biological films of bacteria,
protozoa and fungi form on the medias surfaces and eat
or otherwise reduce the organic content. This biofilm is
grazed by insect larvae and worms which help maintain an
optimal thickness. Overloading of beds increases the
thickness of the film leading to clogging of the filter media
and ponding on the surface.
Trickling filter bed using plastic
media
d.)Secondary
sedimentation
The final step in the
secondary treatment
stage is to settle out the
biological floc or filter
material and produce
sewage water containing
very low levels of organic
material and suspended
matter. Secondary Sedimentation tank at a
rural treatment plant
III. Tertiary treatment

Tertiary treatment provides a final stage

to raise the effluent quality before it is
discharged to the receiving environment
(sea, river, lake, ground, etc.). More than
one tertiary treatment process may be
used at any treatment plant. If
disinfection is practiced, it is always the
final process. It is also called "effluent
polishing".
a.)Filtration
Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended
matter. Filtration over activated carbon removes residual
toxins.

b.)Lagooning
Lagooning provides settlement and further biological
improvement through storage in large man-made ponds
or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and
colonization by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is
often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such
as Daphnia and species of Rotifera greatly assist in
treatment by removing fine particulates.

c.) Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands include engineered reedbeds and a
range of similar methodologies, all of which provide a high
degree of aerobic biological improvement and can often
be used instead of secondary treatment for small
communities
d.)Waste removal
Wastewater may contain high levels of the
nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive
release to the environment can lead to a build up
of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in
turn encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae,
and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may
cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the
population of algae. The algae numbers are
unsustainable and eventually most of them die.
The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses
up so much of oxygen in the water that most or
all of the animals die, which creates more organic
matter for the bacteria to decompose. In addition
to causing deoxygenation, some algal species
produce toxins that contaminate drinking water
supplies. Different treatment processes are
required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus.
e.)Nitrogen removal
The removal of nitrogen is effected through the
biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia (
nitrification) to nitrate, followed by denitrification,
the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen
gas is released to the atmosphere and thus
removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process,
each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to
nitrite (NO2) is most often facilitated by
Nitrosomonas spp. (nitroso=ammonium). Nitrite
oxidation to nitrate (NO3), though traditionally
believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp.
(nitro=nitrite), is now known to be facilitated in
the environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira
spp.
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to
encourage the appropriate biological
communities to form. It is facilitated by a wide
diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and
reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen,
but the activated sludge process (if designed
well) can do the job the most easily. Since
denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to
dinitrogen gas, an electron donor is needed.
This can be, depending on the wastewater,
organic matter (from faeces), sulfide, or an
added donor like methanol.
Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to
nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary
treatment.
f.)Phosphorus removal
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process
called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. In this
process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate
accumulating organisms, are selectively enriched and
accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their
cells (up to 20% of their mass). When the biomass
enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated
water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.

Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical

precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g. ferric
chloride) or aluminum (e.g. alum). The resulting chemical
sludge is difficult to handle and the added chemicals can
be expensive. Despite this, chemical phosphorus removal
requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than
biological removal, is easier to operate and can be more
reliable in areas that have wastewater compositions that
make biological phosphorus removal difficult.
f.)Disinfection
The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of
wastewater is to substantially reduce the number of
microorganisms in the water to be discharged back
into the environment. The effectiveness of
disinfection depends on the quality of the water
being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of
disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage
(concentration and time), and other environmental
variables. Cloudy water will be treated less
successfully since solid matter can shield organisms,
especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are
low. Generally, short contact times, low doses and
high flows all militate against effective disinfection.
Common methods of disinfection include ozone,
chlorine, or ultraviolet light. Chloramine, which is
used for drinking water, is not used in wastewater
treatment because of its persistence.
f.1. Chlorination remains the most common
form of wastewater disinfection in North
America due to its low cost and long-term
history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is
that chlorination of residual organic material
can generate chlorinated-organic compounds
that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the
environment. Residual chlorine or
chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural
aquatic environment. Further, because
residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species,
the treated effluent must also be chemically
dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and
cost of treatment.
f.2. Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead
of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals.
Because no chemicals are used, the treated
water's taste is more natural and pure as
compared to other methods. UV radiation
causes damage to the genetic structure of
bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens,
making them incapable of reproduction. The
key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the
need for frequent lamp maintenance and
replacement and the need for a highly treated
effluent to ensure that the target
microorganisms are not shielded from the UV
radiation (i.e., any solids present in the
treated effluent may protect microorganisms
from the UV light).
f.3. Ozone O3 is generated by passing oxygen
O2 through a high voltage potential resulting in
a third oxygen atom becoming attached and
forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive
and oxidizes most organic material it comes in
contact with, thereby destroying many
pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is
considered to be safer than chlorine because,
unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site
(highly poisonous in the event of an accidental
release), ozone is generated onsite as needed.
Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-
products than chlorination. A disadvantage of
ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone
generation equipment and the requirements for
highly skilled operators.
Sludge treatment and
disposal
The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment
process must be treated and disposed of in a safe
and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to
reduce the amount of organic matter and the
number of disease-causing microorganisms present
in the solids. The most common treatment options
include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and
composting.
The choice of a wastewater solid treatment method
depends on the amount of solids generated and
other site-specific conditions. However, in general,
composting is most often applied to smaller-scale
applications followed by aerobic digestion and then
lastly anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale
municipal applications.
a.)Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial process that is

carried out in the absence of oxygen. The
process can either be thermophilic digestion, in
which sludge is fermented in tanks at a
temperature of 55C, or mesophilic, at a
temperature of around 36C. Though allowing
shorter retention time (and thus smaller tanks),
thermophilic digestion is more expensive in
terms of energy consumption for heating the
sludge.
One major feature of anaerobic digestion is the
production of biogas, which can be used in
generators for electricity production and/or in
boilers for heating purposes.
b.)Aerobic digestion

Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process

occurring in the presence of oxygen.
Under aerobic conditions, bacteria
rapidly consume organic matter and
convert it into carbon dioxide. The
operating costs are characteristically
much greater than for anaerobic
digestion because of the energy costs
needed to add oxygen to the process.
c.)Composting
Composting is also an aerobic
process that involves mixing the
wastewater solids with sources of
carbon such as sawdust, straw or
wood chips. In the presence of
oxygen, bacteria digest both the
wastewater solids and the added
carbon source and, in doing so,
produce a large amount of heat.
d.)Sludge disposal
When a liquid sludge is produced, further
treatment may be required to make it suitable
for final disposal. Typically, sludges are
thickened (dewatered) to reduce the volumes
transported off-site for disposal. There is no
process which completely eliminates the need
to dispose of biosolids. There is, however, an
additional step some cities are taking to
superheat the wastewater sludge and convert it
into small pelletized granules that are high in
nitrogen and other organic materials. This
product is then sold to local farmers and turf
farms as a soil amendment or fertilizer,
reducing the amount of space required to
dispose of sludge in landfills
Sewage treatment in developing
countries
There are few reliable figures on the share of the
wastewater collected in sewers that is being treated in
the world. In many developing countries the bulk of
domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged
without any treatment or after primary treatment only.
In Latin America about 15% of collected wastewater
passes through treatment plants (with varying levels
of actual treatment). In Venezuela, a below average
country in South America with respect to wastewater
treatment, 97 percent of the countrys sewage is
discharged raw into the environment. Even a highly
industrialized country such as the People's Republic of
China discharges about 55 percent of all sewage
without treatment of any type. In a relatively
developed Middle Eastern country such as Iran,
Tehran's majority of population has totally untreated
sewage injected to the citys groundwater. Most of
sub-Saharan Africa is without wastewater treatment.
Water utilities in developing countries are chronically
underfunded because of low water tariffs, the inexistence of
sanitation tariffs in many cases, low billing efficiency (i.e.
many users that are billed do not pay) and poor operational
efficiency (i.e. there are overly high levels of staff, there are
high physical losses, and many users have illegal connections
and are thus not being billed). In addition, wastewater
treatment typically is the process within the utility that
receives the least attention, partly because enforcement of
environmental standards is poor. As a result of all these
factors, operation and maintenance of many wastewater
treatment plants is poor. This is evidenced by the frequent
breakdown of equipment, shutdown of electrically operated
equipment due to power outages or to reduce costs, and
sedimentation due to lack of sludge removal. Developing
countries as diverse as Egypt, Algeria, China or Colombia have
invested substantial sums in wastewater treatment without
achieving a significant impact in terms of environmental
improvement. Even if wastewater treatment plants are
properly operating, it can be argued that the environmental
impact is limited in cases where the assimilative capacity of
the receiving waters (ocean with strong currents or large
 Analysis Result Effluent standard Test method

BOD, mg/L 284 50 Azide

modification

COD, mg/L 438 100 Open reflux

dichromate

TSS, mg/L 94 70 Gravimetry

Oil & Grease 13 5 Partition/

Gravimetry

pH 5.78 6.5-8.5 Electrometry

Intro to Environmental Engineering

Water Pollution
 Properties of Water
Dipolar in nature wherein hydrogen and oxygen
molecules are attracted to each other. This
explains why water boils at high temperature
and takes unusual amount of energy to vaporize.
the only common liquid that expands when it
freezes
the only substance that appears in three states,
gaseous, liquid, and ice
has high surface tension
has higher heat capacity
Dissolves more substances than any other
solvents
Absorbs solar energy and infrared radiation
leaving the earths surface
 Stocks of Water on Earth
Location Amount Percentage of World Supply
Oceans 1338.0 96.5
Glaciers 24.1 1.74
Groundwater 23.4 1.7
Ground ice 0.30 0.022
Freshwater lakes 0.091 0.007
Saline Lakes 0.085 0.006
Swamp water 0.011 0.008
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Stream Channels 0.002 0.0002
In living biomass 0.001 0.0001
 Types of Water Pollutions
Water pollution can come from a number
of different sources. If the pollution comes
from a single source, such as an oil spill, it
is called point-source pollution. If the
pollution comes from many sources, it is
called non-point source pollution.
Most types of pollution affect the
immediate area surrounding the source.
Sometimes the pollution may affect the
environment hundreds of miles away from
the source, such as nuclear waste, this is
called transboundary pollution.
 Dangerous to health
- Heavy metals from industrial
processes can accumulate in nearby
lakes and rivers. These are toxic to
marine life such as fish and shellfish,
and subsequently to the humans who
eat them. Heavy metals can slow
development; result in birth defects
and some are carcinogenic.
- Industrial waste often contains many
toxic compounds that damage the
health of aquatic animals and those
who eat them. Some of the toxins in
industrial waste may only have a mild
effect whereas other can be fatal.
They can cause immune suppression,
reproductive failure or acute
poisoning.
- Microbial pollutants from sewage
often result in infectious diseases
that infect aquatic life and terrestrial
life through drinking water. Microbial
water pollution is a major problem in
the developing world, with diseases
such as cholera and typhoid fever
being the primary cause of infant
mortality.
- Organic matter and nutrients
causes an increase in aerobic algae
and depletes oxygen from the water
column. This causes the suffocation
of fish and other aquatic organisms.
- Sulfate particles from acid rain can
cause harm the health of marine life
in the rivers and lakes it
contaminates, and can result in
mortality.
-Suspended particles in freshwater
reduces the quality of drinking water
for humans and the aquatic
environment for marine life.
Suspended particles can often reduce
the amount of sunlight penetrating

- Conserve water by turning off
the tap when running water is not
necessary. This helps prevent
water shortages and reduces the
amount of contaminated water
that needs treatment.
- Be careful about what you throw
down your sink or toilet. Dont
throw paints, oils or other forms
of litter down the drain.
- Use environmentally household
products, such as washing
powder, household cleaning
agents and toiletries.
How to prevent
water pollution?
- Take great care not to overuse
pesticides and fertilizers. This will
prevent runoffs of the material
into nearby water sources.
- By having more plants in your
garden you are preventing
fertilizer, pesticides and
contaminated water from running
off into nearby water sources.
- Dont throw litter into rivers,
lakes or oceans. Help clean up any
litter you see on beaches or in
rivers and lakes, make sure it is
safe to collect the litter and put it
Treating
WATER DISPOSAL
GRAY WATER - sometimes spelled gray
water, greywater or gray water and also
known as sullage, is non-industrial
wastewater generated from domestic
processes such as washing dishes,
laundry and bathing. Grey water
comprises 50-80% of residential
wastewater. Grey water is distinct from
black water in the amount and
composition of its chemical and biological
contaminants (from fences or Toxic
chemical).
 Elimination of grey water
Domestic wastewater is usually combined at the
sewer, so that grey and black waters are
removed together using a shared sewerage
system. Sewage water can then be treated to
limit pollution and health risks, before being
returned to the environment at large. The
majority of greywater ends up as effluent in
rivers and oceans in this way. Despite treatment,
this arguably results in greater contamination of
natural waters, as the natural purification
capacity of surface water is millions of times less
than that of soil. Simply dumping greywater on
the soil, from an ecological standpoint, is less
damaging than sending highly treated greywater
directly into natural waters.
Application of recycled greywater
 Irrigation
Greywater typically breaks down faster than blackwater and has
much less nitrogen and phosphorus. However, all greywater must
be assumed to have some blackwater-type components,
including pathogens of various sorts. Greywater should be
applied below the soil surface where possible (e.g. in mulch filled
trenches) and not sprayed, as there is a danger of inhaling the
water as an aerosol.
However, long term research on greywater use on soil has not yet
been done and it is possible that there may be negative impacts
on soil productivity. If you are concerned about this, avoid using
laundry powders; these often contain high levels of salt as a
bulking agent, and this has the same effect on your soil as a
drought.
 Indoor reuse
Recycled greywater from showers and bathtubs can be used for
flushing toilets, which saves great amounts of water. Many attempts
at this have been made in Germany. However, untreated greywater
cannot be used as flush-water as it will start to smell and discolor the
flush toilet fixture if left for a day or more.
The level of treatment required in this case requires the water to have
low or nil biochemichal oxygen demand, but it is not necessary for it
to be treated to the same standards as potable water. Greywater
recycling for toilet flushing is currently considered to be
uneconomical or environmentally unfriendly at most domestic levels.
However, a Quebec company, Brac System, has recently patented a
cost-effective system that uses a chlorine treatment, and is selling
the system in the Americas, Europe, and Australia. As an alternative
to treatment, a South African Company is manufacturing and
distributing the GardenResQ product in both South Africa and
Australia - a grey water diversion systems that allows all household
grey water to be automatically diverted to the garden for irrigation
purposes.
INDIVIDUAL WASTE WATER
DISPOSAL SYSTEM
(IWDS)
The Purpose of the Program:
Whereas large numbers of residents
currently and will continue to rely on
(Onsite wastewater disposal systems for
treatment and disposal of wastewater; and
whereas proper design, construction, and
operation of these systems provide
personal and public benefit through
protection of ground water and surface
water; whereas public health can be
significantly impacted by design and
continue use of substandard disposal
systems, and whereas waste from
How the Septic System
Work
The way in which a septic system treats
wastewater is really quite simple, and when it
works properly, the quality of the treated waste
can be better even than that produced by large
sewage treatment plants. The treatment
occurs at two main points: inside the septic
tank, and in the soil absorption system, usually
called a leaching field.
The wastewater first passes into the septic
tank, where it is held for about 24 hours,
allowing time for solids to settle to the bottom
as sludge, or float to the surface as scum.
Naturally occurring bacteria break down these
solids over time, allowing the septic tank to
From the septic tank, the wastewater then
flows into the leaching field. Here, the
partially treated wastewater spreads out
through the gravel, and is slowly
absorbed by the soil. Again, naturally
occurring bacteria and other
microorganisms treat the wastewater as it
filters through the soil, eating the
harmful bacteria and even some of the
chemicals in the wastewater. After
passing through a certain amount of soil
(3 feet is usually considered the
minimum), the treatment of the
water quality control

water and wastewater

systems
Water Quality
Control
Two complementary
approaches:
 Legislative
bodies
bodies provide the laws
that regulatory agencies
use to define acceptable
emissions and establish
standards that govern the
minimum quality of water
for its many beneficial uses
 scientific and
engineering community
provides the technical
guidance needed by
legislators and regulators,
as well as the
technology that is used to
achieve those standards.
 MUNICIPAL
WATER AND
WASTEWATER
SYSTEMS
two critical
systems
 primary responsibility :

to kill pathogens before and after

water is used
 water collection,
treatment,
and distribution system

provides safe
drinking water
wastewater collection
and treatment system
removes contaminants
before the effluents are
released back into the
local stream, lake,
estuary, or coastal waters
 safe drinking water act in the
philippines
ARTICLE I
GENERAL PROVISIONS
SECTION 1. Short Title. - This Act may be cited as
the "Safe Drinking Water Act o f 20 04.
SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. - It is hereby declared
the policy of the State to protect, conserve and
develop its water resources.
The establishment and maintenance of a
comprehensive national regulatory system that will
consider the quality of source waters, the
protection afforded by water-shed management,
treatment practices and other factors to ensure
that drinking water is safe for human consumption
shall be accorded importance as a national policy.
 Water Stagnation
Water stagnation occurs when water stops flowing.
Stagnant water can be a major environmental
hazard.

Classifications of Stagnant Water

Water body stagnation: stagnation in lakes,

lagoons, rivers etc.
Surface and groundwater stagnation
Trapped water stagnation: The water may be
trapped in human artifacts (discarded cans, pots,
tires, dug-outs, roofs, etc.) as well as in natural
containers, such as hollow tree trunks, leaf
sheaths, etc.
What are the main dangers of
stagnant water?

Malaria & Dengue

bacteria
parasites
 Life that may thrive in stagnant
water
Plant (lotus)
anaerobic bacteria
- denitrifying bacteria
- purple bacteria
- leptospira
 Fish
- Northern snakehead
- Siamese Fighting fish
- walking catfish

- gar
 Insects
- mosquito (larvae)
- fly (maggots)
- dragonfly (nymphs)
- nepidae (water scorpions)
Other
- frogs
- algae
- biofilm
- turtles
Thermal Stratification

Existence of turbulently
mixed layer of warm water
(epilimnion) overlying a colder
mass of relatively stagnant
water (hypolimnion) in a water
body due to cold water being
denser than warm water coupled
with the damping effect of water
depth on the intensity of wind
mixing.
Lake stratification is the separation of lakes into
three layers :

1) Epilimnion upper layer of the

lake
2) Thermocline (metalimnion)
middle layer of the
lake.
3) Hypolimnion the bottom layer
of the lake.
* Lake Stratification*
 Acidification of lakes
All rainfall is naturally somewhat
acidic. Pure water in equilibrium with
atmospheric carbon dioxide forms a
weak solution of carbonic acid wuth
the pH of about 5.6. Acid deposition
is the scientific term to describe
acid rain.
 What is acid rain?

Acid rain is polluted rain, snow, or

fog. The burning of fossil fuels, base
metal smelting, and fuel combustion in
vehicles emits sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides .These gases enter the
atmosphere and transform into sulfuric
acid and nitric acid, which then acidify
the water vapor. The acidified water
vapor will then fall to the earth as acid
rain, snow, or fog .