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Fault Analysis
The cause of electric power system faults is
insulation breakdown
This breakdown can be due to a variety of different
factors
lightning
wires blowing together in the wind
animals or plants coming in contact with the wires
salt spray or pollution on insulators
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Fault Types
There are two main types of faults
symmetric faults: system remains balanced; these faults
are relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so well
consider them first.
unsymmetric faults: system is no longer balanced; very
common, but more difficult to analyze
The most common type of fault on a three phase
system by far is the single line-to-ground (SLG),
followed by the line-to-line faults (LL), double
line-to-ground (DLG) faults, and balanced three
phase faults
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Lightning Strike Event Sequence
1. Lighting hits line, setting up an ionized path to
ground
30 million lightning strikes per year in US!
a single typical stroke might have 25,000 amps, with a
rise time of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.
multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the
lightning to appear to flicker, with the total event
lasting up to a second.
2. Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after
lightning stroke energy has dissipated, resulting in
high fault currents (often > 25,000 amps!)
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Lightning Strike Sequence, contd
1. Within one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both
ends of line detect high currents, signaling circuit
breakers to open the line
nearby locations see decreased voltages
2. Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an
additional one to two cycles
breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no
small feat!
with line removed voltages usually return to near normal
3. Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds,
trying to restore faulted line to service
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Worldwide Lightning Strike Density
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RL Circuit Analysis
To understand fault analysis we need to review the
behavior of an RL circuit
v(t )
2 V cos( t )
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RL Circuit Analysis, contd
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RL Circuit Analysis, contd
Hence i(t) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying
dc current. The magnitude of i dc (0) depends on when
the switch is closed. For fault analysis we're just
2V
concerned with the worst case: C1
Z
i (t ) i ac (t ) i dc (t )
2V 2V t T
i (t ) cos(t ) e
Z Z
2V t
(cos(t ) e T )
Z
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RMS for Fault Current
2V t
The function i(t) (cos(t ) e T ) is not periodic,
Z
so we can't formally define an RMS value. However,
as an approximation define
2 2
I RMS (t ) iac (t ) idc (t )
2t
2 2 T
I ac 2 I ac e
This function has a maximum value of 3 I ac
Therefore the dc component is included simply by
multiplying the ac fault currents by 3
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Generator Modeling During Faults
During a fault the only devices that can contribute
fault current are those with energy storage
Thus the models of generators (and other rotating
machines) are very important since they contribute
the bulk of the fault current.
Generators can be approximated as a constant
voltage behind a time-varying reactance
'
Ea
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Generator Modeling, contd
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Generator Modeling, contd
For a balanced three-phase fault on the generator
terminal the ac fault current is (see page 386)
1 1 1 t
Td'
' e
X d X d X d
i ac (t ) 2Ea' sin(t )
t "
1 1 Td
"
' e
X d X d
where
"
Td direct-axis subtransient time constant ( 0.035sec)
Td' direct-axis transient time constant ( 1sec)
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Generator Modeling, cont'd
The phasor current is then
1 1 1
t
Td'
' e
X d X d X d
I ac Ea'
t "
1 1 Td
X " X ' e
d d
The maximum DC offset is
2 Ea' t
TA
I DC (t ) "
e
Xd
where TA is the armature time constant ( 0.2 seconds)
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Generator Short Circuit Currents
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Generator Short Circuit Currents
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Generator Short Circuit Example
A 500 MVA, 20 kV, 3 is operated with an internal
voltage of 1.05 pu. Assume a solid 3 fault occurs
on the generator's terminal and that the circuit
breaker operates after three cycles. Determine the
fault current. Assume
X d" 0.15, X d' 0.24, X d 1.1 (all per unit)
" '
Td 0.035 seconds, Td 2.0 seconds
TA 0.2 seconds
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Generator S.C. Example, cont'd
Substituting in the values
1 1 1 t 2.0
1.1 0.24 1.1 e
I ac (t ) 1.05
1 1 e t 0.035
0.15 0.24
I ac (0) 1.05 7 p.u.
0.15
500 106
I base 3
14,433 A I ac (0) 101,000 A
3 20 10
t
I DC (0) 101 kA 2 e 0.2 143 k A I RMS (0) 175 kA
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Generator S.C. Example, cont'd
Evaluating at t = 0.05 seconds for breaker opening
1 1 1 0.05 2.0
1.1 0.24 1.1 e
I ac (0.05) 1.05
1 1 e 0.05
0.035
0.15 0.24
I ac (0.05) 70.8 kA
0.05
I DC (0.05) 143 e 0.2 kA 111 k A
I RMS (0.05) 70.82 1112 132 kA
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Network Fault Analysis Simplifications
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Network Fault Example
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Fault Analysis Solution Techniques
Circuit models used during the fault allow the
network to be represented as a linear circuit
There are two main methods for solving for fault
currents:
Direct method: Use prefault conditions to solve for the
internal machine voltages; then apply fault and solve
directly
Superposition: Fault is represented by two opposing
voltage sources; solve system by superposition
first voltage just represents the prefault operating point
second system only has a single voltage source
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Superposition Approach
Faulted Condition
Fault is represented
by two equal and
Exact Equivalent to Faulted Condition opposite voltage
sources, each with
a magnitude equal
to the pre-fault voltage
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Superposition Approach, contd
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Superposition Approach, contd
I f I (1)
f I (2)
f 0 I (2)
f
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Two Bus Superposition Solution
Before the fault we had E f 1.050,
I (1) 0.952 18.2 and I m(1) 0.952 18.2
g
M V1
(2)
(2)
Z11 L Z1n 0 V2
Then M O M I f M
Z n1 L Z nn 0 Vn(2) 1
M (2)
Vn
For a fault a bus i we get -If Zii V f Vi(1)
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Determination of Fault Current
Hence
Vi(1)
If
Zii
Where
Zii @ driving point impedance
Zij (i j ) @ transfer point imepdance
Voltages during the fault are also found by superposition
Vi Vi(1) Vi(2) Vi(1) are prefault values
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Three Gen System Fault Example
15 10 0
Ybus j 10 20 5
0 5 9
1
15 10 0
Zbus j 10 20 5
0 5 9
0.1088 0.0632 0.0351
j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526
0.0351 0.0526 0.1409
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Three Gen Example, contd
1.05
For a fault at bus 1 we get I1 j 9.6 I f
j 0.1088
0.1088 0.0632 0.0351 j 9.6
V (2) j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526 0
0.0351 0.0526 0.1409 0
1.050
0.600
0.3370
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Three Gen Example, contd
1.050 1.050 0 0
V 1.050 0.606 0 0.444 0
1.050 0.337 0 0.713 0
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PowerWorld Example 7.5: Bus 2 Fault
slack
0.000 pu Two
0.000 deg
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