Formal Versus Informal Logic

Deductive Versus Inductive

Forms of Reasoning
 Two basic categories
of human reasoning

Deduction: reasoning from general premises, which are

known or presumed to be known, to more specific, certain
conclusions.
Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more
general, but uncertain, conclusions.

Both deductive and inductive arguments occur frequently

and naturallyboth forms of reasoning can be equally
compelling and persuasive, and neither form is preferred
over the other (Hollihan & Baske, 1994).
Deduction Vs. Induction

Deduction: Induction
commonly associated commonly known as
with formal logic. informal logic, or
involves reasoning everyday argument
from known premises, involves drawing
or premises presumed uncertain inferences,
to be true, to a certain based on probabalistic
conclusion. reasoning.
the conclusions the conclusions
reached are certain, reached are probable,
inevitable, reasonable, plausible,
inescapable. believable.
Deductive Versus
Inductive Reasoning
Deduction
It is the form or structure
of a deductive argument
that determines its validity
the fundamental property
of a valid, deductive
argument is that if the
premises are true, then
the conclusion necessarily
follows.
The conclusion is said to
be entailed in, or
contained in, the premises.
example: use of DNA
testing to establish
paternity
Induction
By contrast, the form or
structure of an inductive
argument has little to do with
its perceived believability or
credibility, apart from making
the argument seem more
clear or more well-organized.
The receiver (or a 3rd party)
determines the worth of an
inductive argument
Inductive or deductive reasoning?

A sample of fifty The Law of the Sea treaty

motorists who were
stopped by the CHP at a
sobriety checkpoint on a
Saturday at midnight
revealed that one in four
drivers were either
uninsured, intoxicated,
or both. Thus, if you get
involved in an accident
on the freeway there is a
25% chance the other
motorist will be drunk or
uninsured.
states that any vessel
beyond a 12 mile limit is in
international waters. The
treaty also states that any
vessel in international
waters cannot be legally
stopped or boarded.
Therefore, when the U.S.
Coast Guard intercepts
boats coming from Cuba or
Haiti more than 12 miles
from the U.S. coast, it is
violating the Law of the
Sea.
Sample Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Example of Example of
Deduction Induction
major premise: All Boss to employee:
tortoises are Biff has a tattoo of an
anchor on his arm. He
vegetarians probably served in the
minor premise: Navy.
Bessie is a tortoise
conclusion:
Therefore, Bessie
is a vegetarian
sample Venn diagram
of a deductive argument

vegetarian animals tortoises

All tortoises Thus, Bessie
fall in the must be a
circle of vegetarian
animals that
are
vegetarians

Bessie falls into the circle

of animals that are
tortoises
Bessie
Other types of
deductive arguments
Suppose every place in
the world that people A. all wooden houses
live is represented by are found in Canada
the blue space inside B. Everyone lives in a
the rectangle. Suppose wooden house
the long pink oval C. Some Canadians live
represents all the in wooden houses
wooden houses in the D. No one lives in
world. And, suppose Canada
the green circle
represents Canada.
The most logical
conclusion one can
draw from the figure is:
Other types of
deductive arguments
Suppose the following
statements are all true: A. Person L is taller than J
Person L is shorter
B. Person X is taller than
than person X
J
Person Y is shorter
than person L C. Person J is taller than L
Person M is shorter D. Person J is taller than
than person Y M
What additional piece E. Person M is taller than
of information would Y
be required to
conclude that Person Solution: Answer C
Y is shorter than M<Y<L< X
Person J?
So, if J is taller than L,
Y must be shorter than J
Other types of
deductive arguments
A mother wants to order
one large pizza, with
exactly 5 toppings for her
three picky children. She
can choose from 7
toppings; cheese,
mushrooms, olives, ham,
sausage, onions, and
pineapple.
Fifi says there has to be
pineapple
Mona says there cannot
be any olives
Rex says that if there is
going to be sausage,
then there has to be
ham too.
Which combination of
toppings should she
select if she is to satisfy
all three childrens
combined demands?
A. pineapple, onions,
cheese, mushrooms,
sausage
B. cheese, sausage, ham,
olives, pineapple
C. cheese, mushrooms,
ham, onions, pineapple
D. sausage, mushrooms,
onions, cheese, and
ham.
the five topping solution
chee mushro oliv ham sausag onio pineapp
se om e e n le

Fifi Yes

Mona No

Rex then if
ham sausa
ge

Note: the statement if sausage, then ham doesnt

imply If ham then sausage. The obverse doesnt
necessarily follow.
Deduction Versus Induction
---continued
Deductive reasoning is
either valid or invalid.
A deductive argument
cant be sort of valid.
If the reasoning
employed in an
argument is valid and
the arguments
premises are true, then
the argument is said to
be sound.
valid reasoning +
true premises =
sound argument
fallacious
Inductive reasoning
enjoys a wide range of
probability; it can be
plausible, possible,
reasonable, credible,
etc.
the inferences drawn
may be placed on a
continuum ranging from
cogent at one end to
fallacious at the other.
cogent
Deduction Versus Induction
--still more
Deductive reasoning is
commonly found in the
natural sciences or hard
sciences, less so in
everyday arguments
Occasionally, everyday
arguments do involve
deductive reasoning:
Example: Two or more
persons are required to
drive in the diamond lane.
You dont have two or
more persons. Therefore
you may not drive in the
diamond lane
Inductive reasoning is
found in the courtroom,
the boardroom, the
classroom, and
throughout the media
Most, but not all everyday
arguments are based on
induction
Examples: The
reasonable person
standard in civil law, and
the beyond a
reasonable doubt
standard in criminal law