BONESANDBONETISSUES

CHAPTER6
 Introduction
Oneofthemostremarkabletissuesofthe
humanbody
Farfrominertandlifeless,bonesare
living,dynamicstructures
Bonesserveawidevarietyofvery
diversefunctionswithinus
Notedfortheirstrengthandresiliency
duringlife,boneswillremainafterwe
arelonggone
SKELETALCARTILAGES

SECTIONI
 SkeletalCartilages
Initiallyourskeletonismadeupof
cartilagesandfibrousmembranes
Graduallyourskeletalcartilagesare
replacedbybone
Uponreachingadulthoodtheskeleton
becomesalmostfullyossified
Onlyafewcartilagesremainintheadult
skeleton
Basicstructure,type&location
Askeletalcartilageismadeofsome
varietyofcartilagetissue
Eachtypecontainsahighproportionof
waterwhichmakesthemresilient
Cartilagehasnonervesorbloodsupply
Itissurroundedbyadensetissue
membranecalledaperichondrium
Basicstructure,type&location
Therearethreetypesofcartilagetissue:
hyaline,elastic,andfibrocartilage
Eachcontainsamatrixofjellylike
groundsubstanceandfibers
Cartilages
 Hyalinecartilages
Themostprevalenttypeofcartilage
Itshighproportionofcollagenfibersgive
itflexibilityandresiliencewhile
providingsupport
Uponexaminationthetissueappears
white,frosted,andsmooth
 Hyalinecartilagelocations
Articularcoverstheendofbones
Costalconnectribstobreastbone
Laryngealskeletonoflarynx
Tracheal&bronchialreinforcethe
respiratorypassages
Nasalsupporttheexternalnose
 Elasticcartilage
Elasticcartilageissimilartohyaline
cartilagebutwithmoreelasticfibers
Itselasticfibersenableittowithstand
repeatedbending
Foundonlyintheexternalearandthe
epiglottis
 Fibrocartilage
Thetissuecontainsparallelrows
chondrocytesalternatingwithcollagen
fibers
Tissueishighlycompressibleandhas
greattensilestrength
Foundinthickpadlikestructureslike
themenisciofthekneeorthediscsofthe
vertebralcolumn
 Growthofcartilage
Cartilagegrowsintwoways
Appositionalgrowthoccurswhencellsin
thesurroundingperichondriumsecrete
newmatrixnexttoexistingcartilage
tissue(growthfromtheoutside)
Interstitialgrowthoccurswhenthe
chondrocyteswithinthecartilagedivide
andsecretenewmatrix,expandingthe
cartilage(growthfromwithin)
FUNCTIONOFBONES

SECTIONII
 Bones
Bonesoftheskeletonareorgansthat
containseveraldifferenttissues
Bonesaredominatedbybonetissuebut
alsocontain
Nervoustissueandnerves
Bloodtissueandvessels
Cartilageinarticularcartilages
Epithelialtissueliningthebloodvessels
 FunctionofBones:
Bonesperformseveralimportant
functions:
Support
Protection
Movement
Mineralstorage
Bloodcellformation
 FunctionofBones

Support Bonesprovideahard
frameworkthat
supportsthebody
Bonesprovide
supportforinternal
organs
 FunctionofBone

Protection Fusedbonesprovide
abraincasethat
protectsthisvital
tissue
Spinalcordis
surroundedby
vertebrae
Ribcageprotects
vitalorgans
 FunctionofBone

Movement Skeletalmuscle
attachedtobonesuse
thebonesasleversto
movethebody
Arrangementof
bonesandjoints
determinethe
movementspossible
 FunctionofBones

MineralStorage Boneservesasa
mineralreservoir
Phosphateand
calciumionscanbe
releasedintothe
bloodsteamfor
distribution
Depositionand
removalareongoing
 FunctionofBones

Bloodcellformation Hematopoiesis
occurswithinthe
marrowcavitiesof
thelongbones
Themajorityof
hematopoiesisoccurs
inbones
CLASSIFICATIONOFBONE

SECTIONIII
 ClassificationofBone:
Bonesvaryinshapeandsize
Theuniqueshapeofeachbonefulfillsa
particularneed
Bonesareclassifiedbytheirshapeas
long,short,flat,orirregularbone
Bonesdifferinthedistributionof
compactandspongyosseoustissues
ClassificationofBones
Classification:
LongBone
Longboneshavea
longshaftandtwo
distinctends
Classificationis
basedonshapenot
size
Compactboneon
exteriorw/spongy
innerbonemarrow
Classification:
ShortBones
Shortbonesare
roughlycubelike
Thincompactbone
layersurrounding
spongybonemass
Shortbonesare
oftencarpal,tarsal
andsesamoidbones
Classification:
FlatBones
Flatbonesare
thin,flattenedand
usuallycurved
Parallellayerof
compactbonewith
spongybonelayer
between
Skull,sternumand
ribsareexamples
Classification:
IrregularBone
Irregularbonesdont
fitintotheprevious
categories
Complicatedshapes
Consistofspongybone
withathinlayerof
compact
Examplesarehip
bones&vertabrae
BONESTRUCTURE

SECTIONIV
Gross
Anatomy
Landmarks
onatypical
longbone
Diaphysis
Epiphysis
Membranes
Membranes
Periosteum
Endosteum
Diaphysis
Longtubular
diaphysisisthe
shaftofthebone
Collarofcompact
bonesurroundsa
centralmedullary
ormarrowcavity
Inadults,cavity
containsfat
Epiphysis
Theepiphysesare

theendsofthe
bone
Thejointsurface
oftheepiphysisis
coveredwith
articularcartilage
Epiphysealline
separatediaphysis
andepiphysis
BloodVessels
Unlikecartilage

boneiswell
vascularized
Nutrientarteries
servethediaphysis
Thenutrientartery
runsinwardto
supplythebone
marrowandthe
spongybony
Medullarycavity
Theinteriorofallbones

consistslargelyof
spongybone
Theverycenterofthe
boneisanopencavity
ormarrowcavity
Thecavityisfilledwith
yellowbonemarrow
Membranes
Periosteumcovers
outerbonesurface
Consistsofdense
irregularconnective
tissue&osteoblasts
Containnervefiber
bloodandlymph
vesselssecuredby
Sharpeysfibers
Endosteumcovers
internalbone
surfaces
Short,Irregular
andFlatBones
Bonesconsistofthin
layersofcompact
bonesoverspongy
bone
Noshaft,epiphysisor
marrowcavity
Spongyareabetween
isadiploe
Flatsandwichofbone
 HematopoieticTissue
Thehematopoietictissue,redmarrow,is
typicallyfoundwithinthecavitiesof
spongyboneoflongbonesandinthe
diploeofflatbones
Thesecavitiesarereferredtoasred
marrowcavities
Ininfantsthemedullarycavityandall
areasofspongybonecontainredbone
marrow
 HematopoieticTissue(cont)
Intheadultthemedullarycavitycontains
fatthatextendsintotheepiphysisand
thereislittleredmarrowpresentinspongy
bonecavities
Bloodcellproductionoccursonlyinthe
headofthefemurandhumerous
Mostbloodcellproductionoccursinthe
diploeareasofthesternumandhip
Yellowmarrowcanreverttoredmarrow
ifthepersonbecomesveryanemic
 CompactBone
Compactboneappearsverydense
Itactuallycontainscanalsandpassageways
thatprovideaccessfornerves,bloodvessels,
andlymphaticducts
Thestructuralunitofcompactboneisthe
osteonorHaversiansystem
Eachosteonisanelongatedcylinder
runningparalleltothelongaxisofthebone
Structurallyeachosteonrepresentsa
weightbearingpillar
Compactbone
 AnOsteon
Eachosteonisa
groupofhollow
tubesofbone
matrix
Eachmatrixtubeis
alamella
Collagenfibersin
eachlayerrunin
oppositedirections
Resiststorsion
stresses
 AnOsteon
Runningthrough
thecoreofeach
osteonisthe
centralor
Haversiancanal
Thecanalcontains
smallbloodvessels
thatsupplythe
cellsoftheosteon
 Perforating(Volkmanns)Canal
Canalslieat
rightanglesto
longaxisof
bone
Connectthe
vascular
supplyofthe
periosteumto
thoseofthe
centralcanal
andmedullary
cavity
CompactBone
Osteocytesoccupy
smallcavitiesor
lacunaeatthe
junctionsoflamellae
Finecanalscalled
canaliculiconnect
thelacunaetoeach
otherandtothe
centralcanal
Canaliculitieallthe
osteocytesinan
osteontogether
 SpongyBone
Consistingof
trabeculae
Trabeculaealign
alonglinesofstress
Functionasstrutsof
bone
Trabeculaecontain
irregularlyarranged
lamallaeandosteo
cytesinterconnected
bycanaliculi
Noosteonspresent
ChemicalCompositionofBone
Theorganiccomponentsofboneare:
Osteoblasts (budcells)
Osteocytes (maturecells)
Osteoclasts (largecellswhichresorbmatrix)
Osteoid (organicpartofthematrix)
Osteoidmakesup1/3ofthematrix
Includesproteogylcans,glycoproteins,&collagen
Thesecomponents,particularlycollagen
contributetotheflexibilityandtensilestrengthof
bonetoresiststretchingandtwisting
ChemicalCompositionofBone
Theinorganiccomponentsofbone(65%by
mass)consistofhydroxyapatitesormineral
salts,largelycalciumphosphate
Tinycrystalsofcalciumsaltsaredeposited
inandaroundthecollagenfibersofthe
extracellularmatrix
Thecrystalsareexceptionallyhardand
resistcompression
Organicandinorganiccomponentsof
matrixallowsabonetobestrongbutnot
brittle
 BoneMarkings
Bonesareshapedbythetissuesthatact
uponandaroundthem
Bonesdisplaybulges,depressionsandholes
whichserveassitesofmuscle,ligamentand
tendonattachment,pointsofarticulation,
orasconduitsforbloodvesselsandnerves
Projectionsfromthebonesurfaceinclude
heads,trochanters,spines,andothers
Depressionsincludefossae,sinuses,
foramina,andgrooves
Bone
Markings
Tuberositya
largerounded
projectionwhich
mayberoughened
tibialtuberosity
BoneMarkings
CrestAnarrow
ridgeofbone;
usuallyprominent
Crestoftheilium
BoneMarkings
TrochanterA
verylarge,blunt,
irregularlyshaped
process
Greatertrochanter
offemur
BoneMarkings
LineNarrow
ridgeofbone;less
prominentthana
crest
Intertrochanteric
line
BoneMarkings
TubercleSmall
rounded
projectionor
process
adductortubercle
BoneMarkings
Epicondyle
raisedareaonor
aboveacondyle
medialepicondyle
ofthehumerous
BoneMarkings
SpineAsharp,
slender,often
pointedprojection
Spinousprocessof
vertebrae
BoneMarkings
HeadBony
expansioncarried
onanarrowneck
headofthe
humerus
 BoneMarkings
FacetSmooth,nearlyflatarticularsurface
facetontransverseprocessofthoracicvertebrae

Facet
BoneMarkings
CondyleRounded
articular
projection
lateralcondyleof
femur
BoneMarkings
RamusArmlike
barofbone
ramusofthepubis
BoneMarkings
Meatuscanallike
passageway
Externalauditory
meatus
BoneMarkings
SinusCavity
withinabone,
filledwithairand
linedwithmucous
membrane
nasalsinus
BoneMarkings
FossaShallow,
basinlike
depressionina
boneoftenserving
asanarticular
surface
Olecranonfossa
BoneMarkings
Groovea
narrowfurrowin
thesurfaceofthe
bone
radialgroove
BoneMarkings
FissureNarrow,
slitlikeopening
 BoneMarkings
ForamenRoundorovalopeingthrougha
bone
Foramenmagnum
 BoneDevelopment
Osteogenesisandossificationrefertothe
processofboneformation
Inthedevelopingembryotheprocess
leadstotheformationofthebonyskeleton
Bonegrowthcontinuesuntiladulthoodas
theindividualincreasesinsize
Remodelingisboneresorptionand
depositioninresponsetostressandrepair
ofbone
FormationoftheBonySkeleton
Thehumanembryoat6weeksismade
entirelyfromfibrousmembranesand
hyalinecartilage
At6weeksbonebeginstodevelopand
eventuallyreplacesmostoftheexisting
fibrousorcartilagestructures
Theprocessofonedevelopingfroma
fibrousmembraneiscalledintra
membranousossification
Theboneiscalledamembranebone
FormationoftheBonySkeleton
Boneformationthatoccursbyreplacing
hyalinecartilagestructuresiscalled
endochondralossification
Aboneformedinthismanneriscalleda
endochondralbone
IntramembranousOssification
Intramembranousossificationresultsin
theformationofmostbonesoftheskull
andtheclavicles
Noticethattheseareflatbones
Fibrousconnectivetissuemembranes
formedbymesenchymalcellsserveatthe
initialsupportingstructuresonwhich
ossificationbeginsattheeighthweekof
development
 IntramembranousOssification
Formationofan
ossificationcenter
inthefibrous
membrane
Centrallylocated
mesenchymalcells
clusterand
differentiateinto
osteoblasts,
formingthe
ossificationcenter
 IntramembranousOssification
Formationofthe
bonematrixwithin
thefibrous
membrane
Osteoblastsbeginto
secreteosteoid;itis
mineralizedwithin
afewdays
Trappedosteoblasts
becomeosteocytes
 IntramembranousOssification
Formationofthe
wovenboneandthe
periosteum
Accumulating
osteoidformsa
networkwhich
encloseslocalblood
vessels
Vascularized
mesenchymeforms
ontheexternalface
ofwovenboneto
becomeperiosteum
 IntramembranousOssification
Bonecollarof
compactboneforms
Trabeculaejustdeep
totheperiosteum
thicken,forminga
wovencollarwhich
islaterreplacedwith
maturelamellar
bone
Spongybonepersists
internallyandits
vasculartissue
becomesredmarrow
 EndochondralOssification
Mostbonesformbytheprocessof
endochondralossification
Processbeginslateinthesecondmonth
ofdevelopment
Processuseshyalinecartilagebonesas
thepatternforboneconstruction
Duringthisprocesscartilageisbroken
downasossificationproceeds
 EndochondralOssification
Theformationoflongbonetypically
beginsattheprimaryossificationcenter
ofthehyalinecartilageshaft
Theperichondrium(fibrousconnective
tissuelayer)becomesinfiltratedbyblood
vesselsconvertingittovascularized
periosteum
Theincreaseinnutritionenablesthe
mesenchymecellstodifferentiateinto
osteoblastcells
 EndochondralOssification
Formationofa
bonecollararound
hyalinecartilage
model
Osteoblastsofthe
newperiosteum
secreteosteoid
againstthehyaline
cartilagealongthe
diaphysis
 EndochondralOssification
Cartilageinthe
centerofthe
diaphysiscalcifies
Calcificationof
cartilageblocks
nutrientsand
chondrocytesdie
Matrixdeteriorates
andcavitiesdevelop
Bonesstabilizedby
collar;growth
occursatepiphysis
 EndochondralOssification
Invasionofthe
internalcavitiesby
theperiostealbud
andspongybone
Budcontains
nutrientartery&
vein,lymphatics,
nervefibers,red
marrowelements,
osteoblastsand
osteoclasts
Spongyboneforms
 EndochondralOssification
Formationofthe
medullarycavity
asossification
continues
Secondary
ossificationcenters
forminepiphyses
Cartilagein
epiphysescalcifies
anddeteriorates
openingcavities
forentryof
periostealbud
 EndochondralOssification
Ossificationofthe
epiphyses
Hyalinecartilage
remainsonlyat
epiphysealplates
Epiphysealplates
promotegrowth
alonglongaxis
Ossificationchases
cartilageformation
alonglengthof
shaft
 PostnatalBoneGrowth
Duringinfancyandyouthbonegrowth
occursentirelybyinterstitialgrowthofthe
epiphysealplates
Bonesgrowinthicknessbyappositional
growth
Bonesstopgrowingduringadolescenceor
inearlyadulthood
Somefacialbonessuchasthenoseor
lowerjawcontinuetogrowthroughoutlife
GrowthinLengthofLongBones
Processoflongitudinalbonegrowth
mimicstheeventofendochondral
ossification
LongBoneGrowth
Cellsintheepiphysealplate
undergorapidcellmitosis
pushingepiphysisawayfrom
diaphysis
Oldercellsenlarge,matrix
becomescalcified
Chondrocytesdieandtheir
matrixdeteriorates
Calcifiedcartilageiscovered
bybonematrixsecretedby
osteoblaststoformspongy
bone
LongBoneGrowthandRemodeling
Longbonegrowthisaccompaniedby
almostcontinuousremodelinginorderto
maintainproperproportions
Boneremodelinginvolvesbothbone
formationandresorption
Remodelingcanoccuratdiffernetrates
withindifferentareasofthesamebone,
withtheepiphysisbeingreplacedevery
fivetosixmonthswhiletheshaftis
replacedmoreslowly
GrowthandRemodeling
 BoneAnatomyandStress
Wolffslawholds
thatabonegrows
orremodelsin
responsetothe
forceswhichact
uponit
Changesinbone
densityinresponse
toexercise
Tensionand
compressionforces
mustbalance
HealingofaBoneFracture