2.

2 Fallacy of A ccident

Confuses the attribute with

what is an accidental
attributes to a nature of thing.
Ex: All Filipinos are Asians.
But, some citizens are not
Asians.
Therefore, some citizens are not
Filipinos.

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2.2 Fallacy of A ccident

also called destroying the

exception or a dicto simpliciter
ad dictum secundum quid
(an argument based on a
generalization) when an
exception to a rule of thumb is
ignored. *

2
A general rule is applied when
circumstances suggest that an
exception to the rule should apply.

Ex: The law says that you should not

travel faster than 50 kph, thus even
though your father could not breathe,
you should not have travelled faster
than 50 kph.

Proof: Identify the generalization in question

and show that it is not a universal
generalization. Then show that the 3
2.3 Fallacy of P etitio P rincipii

Begging the question

Creating a premise in order to
explain the same question using
the same conclusion as a
fundamental proof.
Ex: Define gentleman
A gentleman is a man who is
gentle.
4
2.3 Fallacy of P etitio P rincipii

"assuming the initial point *

to assume the conclusion of
an argument (a type ofcircular
reasoning)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begging_the_question

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2.4 Fallacy of C onsequent

Stating that the Antecedent

and Consequent are reciprocal
Ex: If it will rain, the grass will
be wet.
It does not rain.
Therefore, the grass is not
wet.

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If its brown, flush it down.
I flushed it down.
Therefore, it was brown.

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2.5 Fallacy of non causa pro causa

False cause
It implies what is not the cause
is assumed to be the cause
Ex: You had an identical twin
daughter because when you were
pregnant you ate the twin
banana.

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2.5 Fallacy of non causa pro causa
The questionable cause
also known as causalfallacy,
false cause, ("non-cause for cause" in
Latin)is a category of
informalfallaciesin which a cause is
incorrectly identified.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionable_cause

Ex: "Putting more police on the streets

actually causes crime to increase! When
we increased the number of cops on the
beat, the number of crimes witnessed by
police actually went up." 10
Fallacy of non causa pro causa
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2.6Fallacy of argum entum ad
ignorantiam
Evidence of Ignorance
The statement is false if it
cannot be proven and true if it
cannot be questioned.
Ex: There are no Martians
because we do not have
evidence that people from Mars
exist.
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2.7 Fallacy of false assum ption
uses false unexpressed argument to an
illicit conclusion.
Ex: I did not attend the meeting yesterday.
Therefore, I was not present yesterday.

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2.8 Fallacy of illicit generalization

An argument of false
generalization based on
insufficient evidence.
Ex: Don Robert is present during
this crime.
Therefore, Don Robert is the
assassin

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2.8 Fallacy of illicit generalization

Hastygeneralizationis an
informalfallacyof
faultygeneralizationby
reaching an
inductivegeneralizationbased
on insufficient evidence
essentially making a hasty
conclusion without considering all
of the variables.
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18
Introduction to Sym bolic Logic
Chapter 9

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 Sym bolic Logic

the use of symbols

to denote
propositions, terms,
and relations
in order to assist
reasoning.
https://www.google.com.ph/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-
8#q=symbolic+logic
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 Sym bolic Logic
Symbolic logic is the method of
representing logical expressions
through the use of symbols and
variables, rather than in ordinary
language. This has the benefit of
removing the ambiguity that
normally accompanies ordinary
languages, such as English, and
allows easier operation.
http://www.philosophy-index.com/logic/symbolic/ 21
 SYMBOL MEANING NOTES
The ampersand (&)
dot conjunction(And) or are also used.
This is the inclusive
(wedge) disjunction (Or) disjunction, equivalent to
and/or in English.
conditional (If-then) (material
(horse shoe)
implication)

(triple bar) If and only if

biconditional(iff)
is also used

negation(Not) is also used
(curl/tilde)
Used to signify the
conclusion of an argument.
Usually taken to mean

therefore
implication, but often used
to present arguments in
which the premises do not
deductively imply the
conclusion

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In an application to different
arguments and statements the
mathematical symbols are needed
so that it does not create any
confusion. However in relation to
English grammar, it gives us
always the simple statement and
compound statement in order to
exhibit the form of arguments.
Ex: If A, then B, and if not A then C.
*
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Additionalto syllogism
SUMMARIZED RULES FOR VALIDITY OF
PROPOSITIONS

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 Fallacies according to Extension of
1.

Term s
MUST HAVE ONLY 3 TERMS
-Subject
- Predicate
- Middle term
1. Fallacious of fourth and fifth term
2. Fallacious of Equivocation (same word
diff meaning)
MIDDLE TERM MUST ONLY BE IN THE MP
as the SUBJECT and in the mp as the
Predicate
3. Misplaced Middle term
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2. Fallacies according to Q uantity
Qualities of Major term and minor term must not be
extended in the conclusion

4. Fallacious of Illicit process of the Major term

(Predicate term is Universal in the Conclusion)
5. Fallacious of Illicit process of the minor term
(Subject particular in premise - Universal in the Conclusion)
MIDDLE TERM once at least be Universal
MIDDLE TERM - unites bet, the major premise and
the minor premise.
6. Fallacious of undistributed Middle term
(MT both particular in the premises)

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3. Fallacies according to Q uality
7. Fallacious of Negative conclusion
(Both premises positive Conclusion must be
positive)
8. Fallacious of Assertive conclusion
(One premise negative conclusion must be
negative)
9. Fallacious of not inclusive negative
premise
(MP and mp must not be both negative)
10. Fallacious of two particular premises
(one must be particular premise so the conclusion will be particular)
11. Fallacious of Distributed conclusion
(the conclusion is universal, it must be particular)
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3. Fallacies according to Q uality
12. Fallacious of Existential
import
(subject of the conclusion must be in
the minor premise and conclusion
must always be assertive)

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