FOUNDATION COURSE PISMP

(TESL) PRIMARY EDUCATION

JUNE 2015 INTAKE
TAHUN 1 SEMESTER
KURSUS & KOD KURSUS : TSL1024 LANGUAGE DESCRIPTION
TOPIC : 9.1 Types of Cohesive Devices
DATE : 17.09.2015
Prepared by : Bryan Andrew
Types of Cohesive Devices

Anaphoric references
Cataphoric references
Logical connectors
Lexical devices
Grammatical devices
 Anaphoric References
Pronouns in anaphora and reference
The most common kind of reference chain has personal pronouns f
the
links except the first
Once upon a time there was an old woman who had a lazy son. She
forever scolding him, but it made no
difference - he spent all his time lying in the sunshine, ignoring he
main
job was to look after her goats,
but he preferred to sleep in the sun.
 The two chains in this text are as follows:
an old woman - she - her - her
a lazy son - him - he - his - his - he
The creation of reference chains here is relatively easy, since there are only
two characters mentioned
and one is female and the other is male.
Third-person pronouns are normally reserved for non-initial links, but first-
person and second-person pronouns may even be the first link because it is
nearly always clear who they refer to (i.e. the speaker and the person
addressed):

Hello, how are you? I'm so pleased to see you. How long is it since we last
met? Didn't you ring me about six months ago? ....

Even third-person pronouns can occasionally be used as the first link,

provided that the person concerned is easy to identify from the context; e.g. if
Bill often calls for his friend Ben, "Is he in?" may be sufficient to identify Ben.
 Definiteness in anaphora and reference
The definite article the is generally used to indicate that the
character referred to is already on stage, or at least known to the
reader, in contrast with the indefinite articles a and some, which
signal the introduction of a new character:
Once upon a time there was an old woman who had a lazy
daughter. The woman used to scold the daughter all day long.
These articles allow a reference chain to be built, without
confusion, out of full noun phrases:
an old woman ... the woman ...
a lazy daughter ... the daughter ...
If the first link in a text contains a definite article, this is often
because the reference chain in fact extends back to a previous
text:
 Although the definite and indefinite articles are generally used
effectively in conversation, the special demands of writing may
produce problems for KS3 pupils. The sample text contains an
example:
Benjemin seemed scared to sign when Alex said if we land in a
farmer's felid and kill some old farmer's cow.
Are the farmers intended to be the same or different? The use of the
indefinite some suggests that the second farmer is a different person
from the first, but the context suggests otherwise. Presumably the
intended meaning calls for the following:
Benjemin seemed scared to sign when Alex said if we land in some
old farmer's felid and kill his cow.
Proper nouns are also definite in the sense that they are only
suitable when the reader already knows the character referred to; so
Benjamin means 'the person called Benjamin', rather than 'a person
called Benjamin'. It is unhelpful to use a proper name when the
reader does not know the person concerned.
 To summarise, a noun phrase is definite if it contains a definite
determiner (e.g. the/this plane) or a proper noun (e.g. Benjamin).
This definiteness tells the reader to look for a character that is
already known for one of two reasons:

because the character concerned is part of the reader's general

knowledge (e.g. the head teacher, the school), or
because the character is currently on stage.
In the second case the definite noun phrase normally refers back to
an earlier noun phrase. Since the two noun phrases refer to the
same character they are often built round the same noun and may
even be identical - e.g. the plane ... the plane. However this does
not have to be so, and varying the noun is an important way to
make writing more interesting and informative. For example, since
plane is a synonym of machine, the second the plane could be
replaced by the machine. KS3 writers should learn to exploit such
lexical relationships.
Lexical relationships in anaphora and reference

If a later noun phrase refers to the same character as an earlier one, its
head noun must obviously fit this character; for example, the man could
refer back to Benjamin but the plane could not. Equally obviously, the
simplest way to make sure that the two noun phrases are compatible is to
give them exactly the same head noun:
Benjamin and Lewis went for a flight. Benjamin hated it but Lewis loved it.
Once upon a time an old man and an old woman owned two cows. The
man took them to pasture every day, while the woman turned their milk
into butter.
In some cases simple repetition is effective, but it quickly becomes
monotonous if the chain is extended. Unless it is clearly intentional, it also
gives the impression - rightly or wrongly - of a limited vocabulary. An
alternative is to replace the earlier noun by a (rough) synonym whose
meaning may be either broader or narrower than that of the word
replaced:
Once upon a time an old king was very ill. The old man sent for his
councillors. When they came before him, their ruler told them that he
wanted to divide his kingdom.
 Another kind of lexical relationship is provided by word
families, which allow words of different classes to be
linked to each other. For example, a noun may belong to
the same family as a verb, so the two can belong to a
single reference chain.

The king won an important battle. His victory made him

the most powerful person in the whole country - indeed
his power was greater than that of any ruler before him.

In this passage won and victory are lexically related as

members of the same word family, and so are powerful
and power.
 Substitution
English has a few words other than pronouns which can be
substituted for other words, phrases or clauses. The most obvious
examples are yes and no, as in:
Do you love me? Yes.
It is very clear that the meaning of yes is based on anaphora, in the
sense that it refers back to a preceding item in the text - in this case,
the sentence Do you love me? This is a very efficient example of
anaphora: one word expresses the meaning of a whole sentence.
The main words that can be used in substitution are as follows:
the 'pro-sentences' yes and no.
the 'pro-clauses' so and not
I think so/not.
If so/not, ...
 the adverbs so and nor
I liked it, and so did John.
Mary didn't like it, and nor did Jane;
I ate it, and John did so too.
the main verb intransitive do
Will it rain? It may do.
the common noun one
I've got a pet goldfish, and my brother's got one too.
the adjective such, meaning 'like that'
Yesterday he was mugged. Fortunately such things are
rare in his life.
Cathaphoric References
Cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something
mentioned later in the discourse.

Although I phone her every week, my mother still complains that I dont
keep in touch often enough.

Her refers to my mother.

The book was there on the table. Id never read Moby Dick and I didnt
intend to do so now.

The refers to Moby Dick.

LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Logical connectors are often listed in categories like
contrast with no further explanation; however, there
are important, though subtle differences in how they
signal relationships between ideas. This handout will
help you choose the appropriate connector by
explaining how some of the more common expressions
function to connect ideas.
LEXICAL COHESION
Lexical cohesion differs from the other cohesive elements in text in that it is non-
grammatical. Lexical cohesion refers to the cohesive effect achieved by the selection of
vocabulary We could say that it covers any instance in which the use of a lexical item
recalls the sense of an earlier one.

The two basic categories of lexical cohesion are reiteration and collocation.

Reiteration is the repetition of an earlier item, a synonym, a near synonym, a

superordinate or a general word, but it is not the same as personal reference, because it
does not necessarily involve the same identity.
After the sequence:

I saw a boy in the garden.The boy (repetition)was climbing a tree. I was worried about the
child (superordinate).The poor lad (synonym)was obviously not up to it. The idiot (general
word) was going to fall if he (pronoun)didnt take care.
 We could conclude by saying: Boys can be so silly. This
would be an instance of reiteration, even though the two
items would not be referring to the same individual(s)
As we have already seen, collocation pertains to lexical
items that are likely to be found together within the same
text. It occurs when a pair of words are not necessarily
dependent upon the same semantic relationship but rather
they tend to occur within the same lexical environment.

Examples

Opposites (man/woman, love/hate, tall/short).

Pairs of words from the same ordered series (days of the

week, months, etc.)
GRAMMATICAL DEVICES
-Halliday and Hasssan (1976) give taxonomy of the types of
cohesive relationship which can be formally established within a
text. Therefore, the main cohesive devices which bind a text
together are of two main categories. Grammatical and lexical
devices. The kinds of grammatical cohesive ties discussed by
Halliday (1978) and Osisanwo (2005) are reference, substitution,
Ellipsis and conjunction. This is represented below forexplicitness