Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ECONOMICS
BY
G.C.ENYI
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING, SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD
MANCHESTER, UK.
AIMS
PROFITABILITY OF A VENTURE
PRODUCTION ECONOMICS
OTHERS
- Expansion in production capacity
- Diversification of activities
Prod
Engi
En g
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Economi
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Wel
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Envir ro c ri
onm P ne e
en gi
tal En g
DECISION MAKING
ENVIRONMENT
The environment within which
decision making takes place can be
logically divided into three parts or
states:
Certainty
Risk
Uncertainty
DECISION MAKING
ENVIRONMENT
Certainty exists when one can specify
exactly what will happen during the
period for which the decision is being
made.
Risk refers to a situation where one can
specify a probability distribution over
possible outcomes.
Uncertainty refers to the condition when
one cannot specify the relative likelihood
of the outcomes.
WHY DO WE MAKE
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
1 Prioritize projects.
2 Re-evaluation of priorities in allocation of
investment funds by
the company.
3 Planned change in development or
production methods that
consequently may affect the production
rate and ultimate
recovery.
4 Assessment of value of assets for taxation
purposes.
-The lease is granted for explicit period (primary term) and for
as long as petroleum is found in paying quantity.
-The LO reserves certain rights and privileges
* Bonus payment *
Royalty payment
* Reversion of right *
Surface rights
MINERAL RIGHTS
ROYALTY INTEREST
- LO is granted fraction of
production free of costs
LICENSES AND LEASES
* CONCESSIONARY
- Allows private (coy) ownership of oil
and gas discovered through transfer of
rights and payments of bonuses,
royalties, taxes to Govt.
- No more prevalent
TYPE OF OIL AND GAS
CONTRACTS
* JOINT VENTURE
- Risk shared by Govt and Coy
SOLUTION
N = 2,170,068 STB
CASH
FLOW
TERMS AND CONCEPTS
*Revenues funds received by the coy during the
period under consideration
Tangible expenses are cost of physical equipment and are tax deductible
only by depreciation.
TAXES
Vary widely throughout the world.
Severance taxes: They include conservation and production taxes. They are levied by
governments and are based on production volume
INCOME TAXES
The net revenue before income tax (net revenue after
expenses) is determined by subtracting total expenditures
before income tax from total revenue. The council, state and
federal taxes are subtracted from the net revenue before
income tax to give after tax net cash flow.
CASH FLOW
DIAGRAM
Dividends to
shareholders
Borrowed capitals
Income from
Corporat Patents, R&D
Cash flow ion cash Outside investment
R&D
Working Direct
capital investment
Depletion
Amortisation
Other deductions
Taxable income Income tax
Net profit
CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS
Companies involved in the exploration
and development of crude oil and natural
gas have the option of choosing between
two accounting approaches: the
"successful efforts" (SE) method and the
"full cost" (FC) method. These differ in the
treatment of specific operating expenses
relating to the exploration of new oil and
natural gas reserves.
CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS
The accounting method that a company
chooses affects how its net income and
cash flow numbers are reported.
Therefore, when analyzing companies
involved in the exploration and
development of oil and natural gas, the
accounting method used by such
companies is an important consideration.
CASH FLOW
The ANALYSIS
successful efforts (SE) method allows a
company to capitalize only those expenses
associated with successfully locating new oil and
natural gas reserves. For unsuccessful (or "dry
hole") results, the associated operating costs are
immediately charged against revenues for that
period.
The alternative approach, known as the full cost
(FC) method, allows all operating expenses
relating to locating new oil and gas reserves -
regardless of the outcome - to be capitalized.
CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS
According to the view behind the SE
method, the ultimate objective of an oil
and gas company is to produce the oil or
natural gas from reserves it locates and
develops so that only those costs relating
to successful efforts should be capitalized.
Conversely, because there is no change in
productive assets with unsuccessful
results, costs incurred with that effort
should be expensed.
CASH FLOW
ANALYSIS
On the other hand, the view represented by
the FC method holds that, in general, the
dominant activity of an oil and gas company
is simply the exploration and development of
oil and gas reserves. Therefore, all costs
incurred in pursuit of that activity should first
be capitalized and then written off over the
course of a full operating cycle. The choice of
accounting method in effect receives
regulatory approval.
NEW PROJECT CASH FLOW
+PROFILE
Abandonment
Cumulative Cashfows
Redevelopment
0
Appraisal time
Production
Exploration = Final Investment Decision
(incl. economics)
= Economic Analysis
Primary
Development
NET CASH FLOW (NCF)
CALCULATIONS
SOLUTION
Revenue = 15 million x $18 = $ 270.00 million
Royalty (20% of Revenue) = 54.00 million **
Opex = 30.00 million
Capex = 75.00 million
Depreciation = 50.00 million
Before tax profit = 61.00 million
Tax (75%) = 45.75 million **
After tax profit = 15.25 million
JVA ( 51%) = 7.78 million **
HG take = 107.53 million
DEPRECIATION
DEPLETION AND
AMORTIZATION
Depreciation, Depletion and Amortization are the
means of recovering investment in certain types of
property in before tax basis.
DEPRECIATION
A reduction in the value of an asset over time, due in particular
to wear and tear. It is a non-cash expense that reduces the
value of an asset over time. Provision should be made for
depreciation of fixed assets.
DEPRECIATION
DEPLETION AND
AMORTIZATION
Depreciation, Depletion and Amortization are the
means of recovering investment in certain types of
property in before tax basis.
METHODS OF COMPUTING
DEPRECIATION
Straight Line
Cost Depletion
Percentage Depletion (% of Gross
Income/Revenue)
50% of Taxable Income
NOTE:
COST DEPLETION
Where:
SOLUTION
For Year 1: Production = 50,000 bbls
Cost Depletion = $150,000{ 50,000 /
1,000,000} = $7,500
j
Convert future values of revenue,
expense, or
investment into present values
EXAMPLES
1) If a sum of $25,000 is invested at the interest rate
of 8% per year for 10 years, what will it grow to?
or
This is the time required for the cumulative net earning to equal
the initial investment. It measures the speed with which invested
funds are returned to the business.
The shorter the period, the better and the higher the project is
rated.
PROJECT A
B
Investment 250,000
250,000
Annual Income 50,000
75,000
DISCOUNTED PROFIT-TO-
INVESTMENT
RATIO (DPR)
It is defined as the ratio of total net profit to
the investment.
i = minimum acceptable
ROR
CONCLUSION
The NPV discounted at 15% is positive. This means
that the six years cash revenues are preferred to our
initial investment of $1,500,000 if the discount rate is
15%. If we invest the $1,500,000 we would make a
15% rate of return plus increase our net worth by
NET PRESENT VALUE
(NPV)
The NPV takes account of all earnings
throughout the expected life of the asset.
When comparing alternatives with different
expected lives, assumption is made in the
evaluation of the future rates that a
companys fund can earn.
For this criterion, it remains a problem to
determine the minimum acceptable rate of
return that projects are expected to earn to
justify investment of the businesss funds.
The rate of return should be above the cost of
capital to the firm. If not, no need to invest.
NET PRESENT VALUE
(NPV)
The minimum acceptable rate of return to
use in the NPV calculation is usually set by
top management after consideration of at
least some of the following factors:
1.Future investment opportunities and their
anticipated rate of earnings.
2.If investment capital borrowed, i* must at least
exceed the interest rate of the loan, or should at
least exceed the average cost of capital.
3.Corporate growth objectives (the rate at which
management has set for annual growth rate of
treasury) should be taken into account.
MID-YEAR PAYMENT
EXAMPLE (MID-YEAR PAYMENT)
The capital cost of natural gas treatment plant is $31,000 and the earning life
of the plant will be 6years. The net incomes in these 6 years will be $5,000;
$12,000; $13,000; $12,000, $12,000, and $8,000 respectively. Calculate the
undiscounted per cent profit and payout time, the discounted values using a
discount rate of 10% and the rate of return. Assume that income is paid as a
lump sum at the midpoint of the year.
SOLUTION
From the Table: Undiscounted Profit = $62,000 - $31,000 = $31,000
Plotting the Cumulative discounted net income against various discount rates gives
the project ROR as 27.6%
ROR
DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW
RATE OF RETURN
(DCFROR)
It is defined as the discount rate that makes the NPV of
a project equal to zero. It is also known as internal rate
of return (IRR), rate of return (ROR). It is expressed as:
= 40.11%
0 20000 100000
5 17049 68750
10 14195 45833
15 11434 23821
20 8762 7629
25 6176 -5574
30 3673 -16424
35 1250 -25412
40 -1096 -32915
45 -3368 -39229
50 -5567 -44583
Profitability of two
investments proposals
The present value profiles for proposals A and B are shown
below
Profitability of two
investments proposals
Proposal A has a discounted cash flow
rate of return of 37.5% and a net profit
of $20,000 while Proposal B has a
discounted cash flow rate of return of
22.8% and a net profit of $100,000.
NOTE:
B/w: 0-19.5: B is good At 19.5:
Both are good
CONFLICT BETWEEN PROFIT
INDICATORS
> Determine (Y-X)
> Handle by PV indicator
Note
Primary production is better since it has lower
PBP and higher P/I at i of 20%.
If i =20%, and (Y-X) is 28%, then we can do
waterfooding (optional).
If i = 30%, and (Y-X) is 28%, then do not
ACCELERATION PROJECTS
An acceleration project is defined as a project applied to an
already existing profitable venture in order to bring future net
income forward in time.
ROR ROR
RISK AND UNCERTAINTY
Risk refers to a situation where one can
specify a probability distribution over
possible outcomes.
Uncertainty refers to the condition when
one cannot specify the relative likelihood of
the outcomes.
Many of the things that we do fall into these
categories. The drilling of an exploratory oil
well is only an example where both the cost
and the uncertainty regarding success are
so great that they cannot be ignored.
RISK AND UNCERTAINTY
We try to reduce such uncertainty by analysing the risk associated with it.
Many risks are well hidden away in the schedule and unless you look for
them, will impact your efforts at a time you least expected.
WHAT IS IMPACTED ?
ONE-POINT-ANALYSIS
Example
Reserves
NPV
400 Mbbls
$6,000
STEPS TOWARDS RISK
ANALYSIS
Example:
Reserves NPV
Probability EV
0 Mbbl 500 M
0.15 75 M
200 Mbbl 3,000 M
0.30 900 M
Decisions and Probability
(Risk) graduate 1
A young graduate has received job offers from
two companies: Shell and Schlumberger. He
plans to work for 4 years, quit and return to
the university.
Shell offers $ 30k p/a, Schlumberger offers $
50k p/a.
Shell FALSE 0
120 120
The Graduate Accept Job
200
Schlumberger TRUE 1
200 200
Decisions and Probability (Risk)
graduate 3
The graduate decides to ask around a bit how
graduates that joint either Shell or Schlumberger some
years ago are doing today. His fact finding shows:
100% of those who joined Shell are still with the
company
80% of those who joined Schlumberger burned out
and quit, on the average after 6 months and need a 6
months recovery period. All then find a job paying
$85k.
20% of those who joined Schlumberger are still with
the company
Given above information, what should he do ?
Decisions and
Probability (Risk)
graduate 4
The graduate realizes that his expectation
earning with Schlumberger is only [0.8x85 +
0.2x200] = $108k, $12k less than with Shell.
He should join Shell.
Shell TRUE 1
120 120
The Graduate(2) Accept Job
120
Burn out 80.0% 0
85 85
Schlumberger FALSE Survive
0 108
Doing fine 20.0% 0
200 200
LIMITATIONS OF EMV
The assumption is that a decision maker will
want to choose a project that has the highest
EMV.
The analyses assume that decision makers will
want to play the average on all deals
regardless of the potential negative
consequences that might result. BUT IS THIS
TRUE?
The curve shows an increasing function and occupies the first & third
quadrants only.
The shape of the curve reflects the attitudes and preferences of the
decision maker. If he was totally impartial to money his utility would be
a straight line passing through the origin.
SHAPES OF VARIOUS PREFERENCE CURVES
Outcomes Probability
Alternatives
Drill
Farm Out (1/8 RI)
Dry Hole 0.4 -200,000
0
5 BCF 0.6
+600,000 +50,000
ANALYSIS
The trees normally reads from left to right and
are drawn in the same order as the actual
sequence in which the decision choices and
chance events occur in the real world.
The ends of a decision tree are called terminal
points. Indicating that there are no further
decisions or chance events beyond that point.
The evaluation of the outcomes starts from
the terminal point of each branch and moves
from right to left.
The decision criterion at any decision node is
to take the branch of alternative that
maximises expected value.
DECISION TREES ANALYSIS
Umbrella Problem
Chance Even
Node t
Stay
n
Rai Dry
No
Ra
rry ella in Unnecessa
Decisio a
C br ry
n Luema Burden
Node um ve
a brell Rain Get
No Wet
Ra
in
St
Dr ay
y
DECISION TREE ANALYSIS
An investor is planning to buy a pizza
restaurant near the university campus. If he
buys the restaurant, there are three possible
outcomes: a low demand, a medium demand
and a high demand for pizza. There is a 60%
chance of a low demand with a resulting loss
of $25,000; a 30% chance of a medium
demand and realising a NPV profit of $50,000
and a 10% chance of a high demand and
realising a NPV profit $150,000. Calculate the
expected value of outcomes.
PIZZA
Low ($-
RESTAURANT 25,000)
Mediu ($50,00
y m 0)
B u
High ($150,00
0)
Don
t
Buy ($0)
Low 0.6
-25,000
Medium 0.3
50,000
High 0.1
150,000
The cost of seismic test is $30,000 and the well can be drilled for $100,000.
Another oil company has promised to buy any oil discovered for $400,000. A
geologist states that there is a 0.55 probability that there will be oil if a well is
drilled immediately. Data on the reliability of seismic tests indicate that if the
test result is favourable the probability of finding oil will increase to 0.85, but
if unfavourable it will fall to 0.10. The geologist has also said that there is a
0.60 probability that the result will be favourable if a test is made. If you were
Mr. Doe what will you do?
SOLUTION
The EMV at the top branch: (0.85)(+$400,000) + (0.15)($0) = $340,000
Compare with the EMV of dont drill = $100,000
(The maximum EMV of $340,000 is chosen for the top node.)
Dont drill
$340,000
Does Decision Tree 0
Oil 0.85 $400,000
Drill -$100,00
No Oil $0
0.15
e
rabl Dont dri
$244,000
t f avou 0.6 ll
Tes $100,000
c
mi $100,000 il 0.10 $400,000
eis Test 00
O
es unfa -$100,0
k
Ta t voura 0.4 Drill 0.90
ble No Oil $0
t s
e
Dont drill
Don $100,000
test t take s
eism Oil
ic 0.55
$430,000
0
-$100,00
Drill 0.45
$250,000 No Oil $30,000
Dont d
rill $130,000
DOES CHOICE
+$244,000 (REJECT)
t
ic te s
ei sm
es
Tak
Don
t Tak
e se
ism
ic test
+$250,000 (ACCEPT)
GOODLUC