Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research
Inductive Method
3
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Research
Qualitative Quantitative
Textual data Numerical data
Explore phenomena Confirm hypotheses
Flexible, Rigid, structured
unstructured Quantify variation,
Describe variation, predict
relationships, and relationships, and
individual and describe
group experiences characteristics
Qualitative Quantitative
General Aim To understand (what, To predict and control

how, & why)
Treatment of Defines very general Isolates and defines
Data concepts and variables and tests
searches for patterns hypotheses on data
Wide lens (inductive) Narrow lens (deductive)
Applied & theoretical Measure and evaluate
Toolbox Participant-Observation Surveys
(fieldwork) Questionnaires
In-depth Interviews Randomized controlled
Focus Groups trials
Document Analysis Systematic reviews/meta-
analyses
Focus Rich thick description Prediction
Naturalistic enquiry Outcomes
Similarities & contrasts Generalizability
Process & context Controlled & experimental
6
Introduction
Qualitative research
Allows the researcher to understand a
problem or phenomenon from the
perspectives of the people it
involves.
Reveals a complete picture of a
certain research issue.
Seeks to provide a rich understanding
of a certain research issue.
What is Qualitative Research?
A holistic approach to questions--a
recognition that human realities
are complex. Broad questions.
The focus is on human experience
The research strategies used
generally feature sustained
contact with people in settings
where those people normally
spend their time. Contexts of
Human Behavior.
8
cont.
There is typically a high level of
researcher involvement with subjects;
strategies of participant observation
and in-depth, unstructured interviews
are often used.
The data produced provide a
description, usually narrative, of
people living through events in
situations.
Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001
9
Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
Data collected with
Starts with general semi-structured and
question or problem unstructured
No pre-defined instruments
hypothesis Presents results
descriptively
Uses a purposeful Utilizes researchers
sample, not a awareness of own
random one orientations, biases,
experiences that might
Uses a relatively affect data collection
small sample and interpretation
10
Now we will write a good
qualitative purpose
statement:
What it includes:
Single sentence
The purpose of this study . . .
Central phenomenon
Qualitative words (e.g. explore,
understand, discover)
Participants
Research site
Office of Qualitative &

Mixed Methods Research,
Understanding the central
phenomenon:
Quantitative Qualitative research
research
Independent Dependent
Variable influences Variable
Y
X Y
Central Phenomenon

Lets stay away from
quantitative language that
might mislead readers
What is not included in this statement:
Not a comparison
Not relating variables
Not proving hypotheses
Not measuring variables

Here is a script for a good
qualitative purpose
statement:
The purpose of this qualitative study
(replace later with type of qualitative
tradition) will be to ______(understand,
describe, develop, discover) the
________(central focus) for
_______(participants: person, process,
groups) at ______________(site)."

Writing good qualitative research
questions
Questions narrow the purpose

Two types:
Central question
The most general question you could
ask
Sub questions
Sub-divides central question into
more specific topics questions
Limited number
Use good qualitative wording for
these questions
Begin with words such as how,
what,
Tell the reader what you are attempting
to discover, generate, explore,
identify, or describe
Ask what happened? to describe
Ask What was the meaning to people
of what happened? to understand
Ask What happened over time? to
explore a process

Avoid words such as:
relate
influence
impact
effect
cause

Scripts to help design
qualitative central questions
and sub-questions:
Central Question Script: (usually write only
one)
What does it mean to ______________ (central
phenomenon)?
How would _________ (participants) describe
__________ (central phenomenon)?"
Sub-Question Script:
(What) ______________ (aspect) does ______
(participant) engage in as a
_____________(central phenomenon)?

Types of Qualitative Data
1.Interviews
2.Observations
3.Documents
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 19

1. Interviews
Open-ended questions and probes
yield in-depth responses about
peoples experiences, opinions,
perceptions, feelings and
knowledge.
Data consist of verbatim

quotations with sufficient context
to be interpretable.

Open and closed questions
(from Oppenheim, 1992)
Strength Limitation
OPEN Freedom & spontaneity of Time-consuming
answer
Opportunity to probe Coding more problematic
Useful for testing More effort from respondents
hypothesis about ideas or
awareness
CLOSED Requires little time Loss of spontaneous
responses
No extended writing Bias in answer categories
Low costs Sometimes too crude
Easy to process May irritate respondents
Make group comparisons
easy
Useful for testing specific
hypothesis 21
Types of Qualitative Data cont.
2. Observations
Fieldwork descriptions of activities,
behaviors, actions, conversations,
interpersonal interactions,
organizational or community processes,
or any other aspect of observable human
experience.
Data consist of field notes: rich detailed

descriptions, including the context
within which the observations were
made.

cont.
3. Documents
Written materials and other documents,
programs records; memoranda and
correspondence; official publications and
reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic
works, photographs, and memorabilia;
and written responses to open-ended
surveys.
Data consists of excerpts from documents

captured in a way that records and
preserves context.

Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry
1. Biography--Life history, oral
history
2. Phenomenology--The lived
experience
3. Grounded theory
4. Ethnography
5. Case Study

Biographical Study
The study of an individual and her

or his experiences as told to the
researcher or found in documents
and archival material.
Life history--The study of an

individuals life and how it reflects
cultural themes of the society.

Biographical Study cont.
Oral history--The researcher gathers
personal recollections of events,
their causes, and their effects from
and individual or several
individuals.
The researcher needs to collect

extensive information about the
subject of the biography

Biographical Study cont.
The writer, using an interpretive

approach, needs to be able to bring
himself or herself into the narrative
and acknowledge his or her
standpoint.

Phenomenology
Describes the meaning of the lived
experience about a concept or a
phenomenon for several
individuals.
It has roots in the philosophical

perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger,
Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc.
--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)

Phenomenology
Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: to

determine what an experience
means for the persons who have
had the experience and are able
to provide a comprehensive
description of it. From the
individual descriptions, general or
universal meanings are derived,
in other words, the essences of
structures of the experience.

Grounded Theory
Based on Symbolic
Interactionism which posits
that humans act and interact
on the basis of symbols,
which have meaning and
value for the actors.

Grounded Theory cont.
The intent of grounded
theory is to generate or
discover a theory that
relates to a particular
situation. If little is known
about a topic, grounded
theory is especially useful
Usually have a question, dont do

a literature review in the
beginning.
Usually do 20-30 interviews

(maybe more than one time for
each person)

Data collection and analysis occur

simultaneously, until saturation
is reached.
Data reviewed and coded for

categories and themes.

Data analysis generates a visual picture,
a narrative statement or a series of
hypotheses with a central phenomenon,
causal conditions, context and
consequences.
The researcher needs to set aside

theoretical ideas or notions so that
analytical or substantive theories can
emerge from the data.
Systematic approach

Ethnography
A description and interpretation of a
cultural or social group or system.
The researcher examines the groups
observable and learned patterns of
behavior, customs, and ways of life.
Involves prolonged observation of

the group, typically through
participant observation.

Ethnography
Field Work
Key Informants
Thick description
Emic (insider group perspective) and
Etic (researchers interpretation of
social life).
Context important, need holistic view.
Need grounding in anthropology.

Ethnography cont.
Need extensive time to collect data
Many ethnographies may be written

in a narrative or story telling
approach which may be difficult for
the audience accustomed to usual
social science writing.

Ethnography cont.
May incorporate
quantitative data and
archival documents.

Case Study
A case study is an exploration of a

bounded system or a case (or
multiple cases) over time through
detailed, in-depth data collection
involving multiple sources of
information rich in context.
The context of the case involves

situating the case within its setting.
which may be physical, social,
historical and/or economic.

Case Study cont.
Data collection strategies include

direct observation, interviews,
documents, archival records,
participant observation, physical
artifacts and audiovisual materials.
Analysis of themes, or issues and

an interpretation of the case by the
researcher.

Feminist Research
Uses feminist theory as the philosophical
underpinning of the approach.
Assumes most formal knowledge is generated by
men.
Assumes that patriarchy and the use of power is
harmful to women.
Some feminists also recognize social class and
race as socially generated constructs that are
used to oppress others.
Qualitative Research--Simpson 41
Spring 2006
Feminist Research is often classified in the
qualitative research family because:
It is used to generate new knowledge.
Its purpose is to create social change.
It argues against the top-down, hierarchal
relationships associated with male-dominated
knowledge by minimizing the social distance
between researcher and subject. Respondents often
participate in the research process.
It focuses on the position in society of research
subjects and the researcher.
The perspectives or standpoint of the subject and
researcher are central in data collection and
analysis.

The term standpoint refers
to:
The perspectives or lived experiences of the
researcher and his or her subjects.
These perspectives vary based on the
location of individuals in the social structure.
Are their perspectives different from those
with privileged positions in society. Is this
standpoint associated with oppression based
on social class, ethnicity/race, gender, sexual
orientation etc. or some combination of these
attributes.

Designing a Qualitative Study
Problem Statement or Statement of

Need for the Study
No hypothesis; Research questions
which you want to answer instead.
Opinions differ about the extent of
literature needed before a study
begins.
Need to identify the gaps in
knowledge about the topic.
Qualitative Study Design cont.
Research questions that are too
broad:
Does Buddhism account for the
patience that seems to dominate
the Thai world view?
How do leaders make their

decisions?

Research questions better
answered
by quicker means:
What television programs do

Brazilians watch most?
Where can you buy postage stamps in

Italy?

Examples of Qualitative Questions

What do people in this setting have to know in
order to do what they are doing?
What is the story that can be told from these

experiences?
What are the underlying themes and contexts

that account for the experience?

Qualitative Sampling
Strategies
No probability sampling

Sampling Strategies cont.
Decisions about sampling and
sampling strategies depend on
the unit of analysis which has
been determined.
individual people
program, group organization or
community
genders, ethnic groups, older and
younger

Fieldwork Observations
Learn to pay attention, see what

there is to see, and hear what there
is to hear.
Practice writing descriptively
Acquiring discipline in recording field
notes
Knowing how to separate detail from
trivia to achieve the former without
being overwhelmed by the latter.

Fieldwork Observations cont.
Use rigorous methods to validate

and triangulate observations.
Reporting strengths and
limitations of ones own
perspective, which requires both
self-knowledge and self-
disclosure.
Participant observer or onlooker
or both

Qualitative Interviewing
1. Informal conversational interview
2. Interview guide approach
3. Standardized open-ended
interview
4. Closed, fixed-response interview

Qualitative Interviewing cont.
Sequencing questions
Use words that make sense to
the people being interviewed.
Ask truly open-ended questions
Avoid questions which can be
answered with a yes or no.
One idea per question.
Be careful with Why questions.

Sampling
Determining a Sample
Even if it were possible, it is not
necessary to collect data from
everyone in a community.
In qualitative research, the researcher
needs to define and select a sample.
The studys research objectives and the
characteristics of the study
population determine which and how
many people to select.
Sampling Methods
Three of the most common sampling
methods are:
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling groups participants
according to pre-selected criteria relevant
to a particular research question.
ex. Motorbike drivers in HCMC
ex. Vietnamese businessmen in the USA
Sample sizes depend on:
Resources and time available
The studys objectives
If the researcher needs a specific number
of participants, quota sampling is better.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling begins with two decisions:
What characteristics?
How many people?
Characteristics are selected in order to find
participants who have experience with or
knowledge of the research topic.
The researcher goes into the community
and selects the predetermined number of
people demonstrating the pre-selected
characteristics.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a form of
purposive sampling.
Participants refer the researcher to
other potential participants.
Snowball sampling is often used to
find and recruit hidden populations
groups not easily accessible to
researchers.
Qualitative Data Analysis
When does analysis begin?
During data collection.
Thick description is the foundation
for qualitative analysis and
reporting.
Organize the data. Read all the
data and get a sense of the whole.
Coding for recurring themes and
categories

Qualitative Data Analysis
Coding data
Finding Patterns
Labeling Themes
Developing Category Systems
Looking for emergent patterns in
the data

Essential Terms
Data analysis
An attempt by the researcher to summarize
collected data.
Data Interpretation
Attempt to find meaning
How do these differ by research

tradition?
Quantitative
Qualitative
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
Interpreting the meaning of

themes/description
Interrelating themes/description
Validating
Themes Description
the
accuracy of
the Coding the data
information
Reading through all the data
Organizing and preparing data for analysis
Collecting
63 raw data
Then we engage in the coding
process that involves several steps:
Divide text Label Reduce Collapse
Initially read
into segments segments of Overlap and codes into
through data
of information information redundancy themes
with codes of codes
Many Many Codes

Pages Segments 30-40 reduced
codes Reduce Codes to
of Text of Text to 20 5-7 Themes
Office of Qualitative & Mixed Methods Research, 64

University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Levels of Coding
(For qualitative data)
Open
Break down, compare, and categorize data
Axial
Make connections between categories
after open coding
Selective
Select the core category, relate it to other
categories and confirm and explain those
relationships
Strauss, A. and J. Corbin. Basics of qualitative research:

Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage, 1990.
65
Computer Assisted/Aided
Qualitative Data AnalysiS
(CAQDAS)
An indispensable tool for storage
retrieval and manipulation of the text
(Kelle, 1995).
Allows the researcher to sort the data
into easily accessible categories to
enable quick retrieval of data
Comparison of segments
Refinement and development of codes
Examples include NVivo, Atlas,
Ethnograph, and Hypersoft
66
What does CAQDAS actually
do?
Aids mechanical data management
techniques such as:
Cutting and pasting into codes
Creating subcategories
Notes in the margin
67
Methods of Evaluating Qualitative
Research
Developing standards of quality
Lincoln and Gubas classic work shed
light on how to assess truth in a
qualitative report
Offered four alternate tests of quality
that reflect the assumptions of the
qualitative paradigm:
Credibility
Dependability
Transferability
Confirmability
6-68
Lincoln and Gubas
naturalistic criteria
Aspect Scientific Term Naturalistic Term
Truth value Internal validity Credibility
Applicability External validity or Transferability
generalizability
Consistency Reliability Dependability
Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability
Source: Adapted from Guba and Lincoln (1981) and Lincoln

and Guba (1985).
69
Alternate Tests of Quality
Credibility refers to accuracy
Description must be plausible and
recognized by participants
Enhanced by:
Prolonged time in the field repeatedly
observing and interacting with participants
Using different data sources, methods,
data type
Conducting member checks
Involving other investigators in the study
70
Dependability refers to the stability and
trackability of the changes in data over time
and conditions
Want to determine the extent to which

another researcher with similar training and
rapport with participants would make the
same observations
This is determined by an audit trail
Involves auditing research process, documenting all the
raw data generated, and assessing method of data
analysis
71
Transferability refers to the
generalizability of the study findings to
other settings, populations, and
contexts
Report must provide sufficient detail so

that readers can assess this
Lack of transferability is viewed as a
weakness of qualitative methods
72
Confirmability refers to the objectivity
of the data
Would another researcher agree about

the meanings emerging from the data?
An audit trail is used in which the
researcher explains how personal
biases may have come into play
6-73
One of the opportunities --- and
challenges -- posed by qualitative
approaches is to regard our fellow
human beings as people instead of
subjects, and to regard ourselves as
humans who conduct our research
among rather than on them.
Wolcott, H.F. (1990). Writing up qualitative research. Qualitative
Research Methods Series, Vol. 20. Newberry Park: Sage.
74
Criteria for Evaluating
Is the research significant? Is there new or
unique information that is added to the work
of others?
Are the methods appropriate for the question?
Are informants appropriate to inform study
questions?
Was data collection systematic? Adequate?
Is reference made to accepted procedures for
analysis?
Was a systematic inductive approach used?
75
Criteria for Evaluating
(continued)
Is there adequate discussion of how the
themes, concepts and categories were
derived from the data?
Are the researchers conceptualizations
true to the data? Are findings presented
within a context? Is the reader able to
understand the essence of the experience
from the report of findings?
Is the credibility of the findings addressed?
Do the conclusions reflect study findings?
76
Advantages and Limitations of
Focus on the whole of the human experience and
the meanings ascribed to them by participants
They provide the researcher with deep insights that
would not be possible using quantitative methods
The major strength of qualitative work is the
validity of the data it produces
Participants true reality is likely to be reflected
Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity
and generalizability
Researchers become the research tools and may
lack objectivity
6-77
References for Qualitative Research
Berg, B.L. (2008) Qualitative Research for the Social
Sciences. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
David, M. and Sutton, C. (2004) Social Research the
Basics. London: Sage, Ch 4.
Flick, U. (2009) An Introduction to Qualitative
Research. London: Sage.
Krueger, R.A. (1988) Focus groups: A practical guide for applied
research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, Inc.
Mason, J. (2002) Qualitative Researching. London:
Sage.
Merriam, S.B. (2009) Qualitative Research: A Guide to
Design and Implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Silverman, D. (2009) Doing Qualitative Research. 78
References
Bernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research
Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and
Research Design: Choosing Among Five
Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A
Qualitative Perspective, 3rd Edition.
Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research &
Evaluation Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage

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Qualitative Research

General Aim To understand (what, To predict and control

Office of Qualitative &

Office of Qualitative &

Office of Qualitative &

Office of Qualitative &

Questions narrow the purpose

Office of Qualitative &

Office of Qualitative &

Office of Qualitative &

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 19

Data consist of verbatim

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 20

Data consist of field notes: rich detailed

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 22

Data consists of excerpts from documents

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 23

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 24

The study of an individual and her

Life history--The study of an

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 25

The researcher needs to collect

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 26

The writer, using an interpretive

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 27

It has roots in the philosophical

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 28

Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: to

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 29

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 30

Usually have a question, dont do

Usually do 20-30 interviews

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 32

Data collection and analysis occur

Data reviewed and coded for

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 33

The researcher needs to set aside

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 34

Involves prolonged observation of

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 35

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 36

Need extensive time to collect data

Many ethnographies may be written

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 37

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 38

A case study is an exploration of a

The context of the case involves

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 39

Data collection strategies include

Analysis of themes, or issues and

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 40

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 42

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 43

Problem Statement or Statement of

How do leaders make their

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 45

What television programs do

Where can you buy postage stamps in

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 46

Examples of Qualitative Questions

What is the story that can be told from these

What are the underlying themes and contexts

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 47

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 48