Chapter 3: Pressure and

Fluid Statics
Dr. SALVADOR VARGAS DAZ
Departamento de Ingeniera Mecnica
Universidad Libre

Semestre 2015-1
 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area.
Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa).
Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in
practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa
= 106 Pa) are commonly used.
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.

Some important conversion factors:

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 104 N/m2 = 9.807 104
Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm
1 atm = 14.696 psi.
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi.
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
Actual pressure at a given point is called the absolute
pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate gage
pressure, Pgage = Pabs - Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum
pressure, Pvac = Patm - Pabs.
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
Actual pressure at a given point is called the absolute
pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage = Pabs - Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum
pressure, Pvac = Patm - Pabs.
 Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point in a
fluid is the same in all
directions.
Pressure has a magnitude,
but not a specific
direction, and thus it is a
scalar quantity.
Proof on the Blackboard
Variation of Pressure with Depth
In the presence of a gravitational
field, pressure increases with
depth because more fluid rests on
deeper layers.
To obtain a relation for the
variation of pressure with depth,
consider rectangular element
Force balance in z-direction
gives Fz maz 0
P2 x P1x g xz 0

P P
Dividing by x and rearranging
2 P1 g z s z
gives

z is called the pressure head

Variation of Pressure with Depth

For small to moderate

distances, the variation
of pressure with height is
negligible for gases
because of their low
density.

The pressure in a tank

containing a gas, for
example, can be
considered to be uniform
since the weight of the
gas is too small to make
a significant difference.
Also, the pressure in a
room filled with air can
be assumed
to be constant.
Variation of Pressure with Depth

For fluids whose density changes

significantly with elevation, a relation
for the variation of pressure with
elevation can be obtained by
 Variation of Pressure with Depth
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the
container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a
A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in
thegiven fluid.
horizontal
direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure throughout by the same amount., this
is called Pascals law.
Pascals Law
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous
fluid at rest are at the
same pressure, called
Pascals law,

Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout by
the same amount.
In picture,
F1 pistons
F2 F2 areA2 at
P2
P1same
height:
A1 A2 F1 A1

Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
 The Manometer
An elevation change of z
in a fluid at rest
corresponds to P/g.
A device based on this is
called a manometer.
A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or
oil.
Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
pressure differences are
anticipated.
P1 P2
P2 Patm gh
Mutlifluid Manometer
For multi-fluid systems
Pressure change across a
fluid column of height h is
P = gh.
Pressure increases
downward, and decreases
upward.
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous
fluid are at the same
pressure.
Pressure can be determined
by adding and subtracting
gh terms.
Mutlifluid Manometer
For multi-fluid systems
Pressure change across a
fluid column of height h is
P = gh.
Pressure increases
downward, and decreases
upward.
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous
fluid are at the same
pressure.
Pressure can be determined
by adding and subtracting
gh terms.
Measuring Pressure Drops
Manometers are
well-suited to
measure pressure
drops across valves,
pipes, heat
exchangers, etc.
Relation for pressure
drop P1 - P2 is
obtained by starting
at point 1 and
adding or
subtracting gh
terms until we reach
point 2.
If fluid in pipe is a
gas, 2 >> 1 and P1 -
P2 gh
 The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device
called a barometer; thus,
atmospheric pressure is
often referred to as the
barometric pressure.
PC can be taken to be zero
since there is only Hg
vapor above point C, and it
is very low relative to Patm.
Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation
has many effects: Cooking,
PC gh Patm nose bleeds, engine
performance, aircraft
Patm gh performance.
The Barometer

Standard
atmosphere is
defined as the
pressure produced
by a column of
mercury 760 mm
(29.92 inHg or of
water about 10.3
m ) in height at 0C
(Hg = 13,595
kg/m3) under
standard
gravitational
acceleration (g =
Pressure Measuring Devices
Bourdon Gage:

http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/bourdon_tubes/images/Bourdon_tube_A.gif
http://www.cpigauges.com/images/gauges/WeldGageStlCsBM400psi.jpg http://www.hydraulicspneumatics.com/FPE/images/sensors1_1.jpg

Principles: change in curvature of the tube is proportional to

difference of pressure inside from that outside the tube
Applications: tire pressure, pressure at the top or along the walls
of tanks or vessels

17
Pressure Measuring Devices
Strain Gage

Principles: P Resistance
Voltage
Applications: Sensors for internal combustion engines, automotive,
research etc.

18
Pressure Measuring Devices
Quartz Gage
Piezoelectric transducers

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Schem
http://www.ransohoff.com/images/systems/transducerlgr.jpg aPiezo.gif

Principles: Pressure Charge

Voltage
Applications: measurements with high accuracy, good repeatability,
high resolution.
e g. Quartz Clock
19
 Fluid Statics

Fluid Statics deals with problems

associated with fluids at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
Therefore, there is no shear stress in the
fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is normal
stress
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is due only to the weight
of the fluid fluid statics is only relevant in
presence of gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged
bodies, water dams and gates, liquid
storage tanks, etc.
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane
Surfaces
On a plane surface,
the hydrostatic
forces form a
system of parallel
forces
For many
applications,
magnitude and
location of
application, which
is called center of
pressure, must be
determined.
Atmospheric
pressure Patm can be
neglected when it
acts on both sides
of the surface.
Hydrostatic Forces on Incline Plane
Surfaces
Hydrostatic Forces on Incline Plane
Surfaces

where PC = P0 + ghC is the pressure at the centroid of the

surface, which is equivalent to the average pressure on the
surface, and hC = yC sin is the vertical distance of the
centroid from the free surface of the liquid.
 Hydrostatic
Center Forces on Incline Plane
of Pressure
Surfaces
Line of action of resultant
force FR = PC A does not
pass through the centroid
of the surface. In general,
it lies underneath where
the pressure is higher.
Vertical location of Center
of Pressure is
determined by equation
the moment of the
resultant force to the
moment of the distributed
pressure force.
 Hydrostatic Forces on Incline Plane
Surfaces
If we use the second the second moment of area (also called
the area moment of inertia) about the x-axis, the equation the
moment of the resultant force to the moment of the
distributed pressure force can be expressed as

where yP is the distance of the center of pressure from the x-

axis taken from point O and is the second moment of area
(also called the area moment of inertia) about the x-axis.
 Hydrostatic Forces on Incline Plane
Surfaces
The second moments of area are usually given about the axes
passing through the centroid of the area. Fortunately, the
second moments of area about two parallel axes are related to
each other by the parallel axis theorem, which in this case is
expressed as

where Ixx, C is the second moment of area about the x-axis passing
through the centroid of the area and yC (the y-coordinate of the
centroid) is the distance between the two parallel axes. Substituting
the FR and the Ixx, O into from the last slide and solving for yP gives
Hydrostatic Forces on Incline Plane
Surfaces
For P0 = 0, which is usually the case when the atmospheric pressure is
ignored, it simplifies to

Knowing yP, the vertical distance of the center of pressure from the
free surface is determined from hP = yP sin .
The centroidal moments of inertia
for some common geometries
Submerged Rectangular Plate
The resultant hydrostatic force
on the upper surface is equal to
the average pressure, which is
the pressure at the midpoint of
the surface, times the surface
area A. That is,

When the upper edge of the

plate is at the free surface and
thus s = 0:
Submerged Rectangular Plate
For a completely submerged
vertical plate ( = 90) whose
top edge is horizontal, the
hydrostatic force can be
obtained by setting sin = 1.

(S = 0)

When the effect of P0 is ignored

since it acts on both sides of the
plate, the hydrostatic force on a
vertical rectangular surface of
height b whose top edge is
horizontal and at the free
surface is FR = gab2/2 acting at
a distance of 2b/3 from the free
surface directly beneath the
centroid of the plate.
Submerged Rectangular Plate

The pressure distribution on a

submerged horizontal surface is
uniform, and its magnitude is P
= P0 + gh, where h is the
distance of the surface from the
free surface. Therefore, the
hydrostatic force acting on a
horizontal rectangular surface is

and it acts through the midpoint

of the plate.
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved
Surfaces

FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires

integration of the pressure forces that change direction
along the surface.
Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical
components FH and FV separately.
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved
Surfaces
Horizontal force component on curved surface:
FH = Fx , line of action on vertical plane gives y
coordinate of center of pressure on curved surface.

Vertical force component on curved surface: FV = Fy + W,

where W is the weight of the liquid in the enclosed block W
= gV. x coordinate of the center of pressure is a
combination of line of action on horizontal plane (centroid
of area) and line of action through volume (centroid of
volume).

Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2

Angle of force is = tan-1(FV /FH)

 Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy is due to the

fluid displaced by a body.
FB = f gV.
Archimedes principle :
The buoyant force acting
on a body immersed in a
fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by
the body, and it acts
upward through the
centroid of the displaced
volume.
 Buoyancy and Stability
Buoyancy force FB is equal only to the displaced volume f
gVdisplaced.
Three scenarios possible
body < fluid: Floating body
body = fluid: Neutrally buoyant
body > fluid: Sinking body
 Stability
An important application of the
buoyancy concept is the assessment
of the stability of immersed and
floating bodies with no external
attachments. This topic is of great
importance in the design of ships
and submarines.
Rotational Stability of Immersed
Bodies

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends

upon relative location of center of gravity G and
center of buoyancy B.
G below B: stable
G above B: unstable
G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
 Stability of Floating Bodies

If body is bottom heavy (G lower than B), it is always stable.

Floating bodies can be stable when G is higher than B due
to shift in location of center buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.
Measure of stability is the metacentric height GM. If GM >
1, ship is stable.
The metacenter may be considered to be a fixed point for
most hull shapes for small rolling angles up to about 20.
 Stability of Floating Bodies

A boat can tilt to some maximum

angle without capsizing, but
beyond that angle it overturns
(and sinks). We make a final
analogy between the stability of
floating objects and the stability
of a ball rolling along the floor.
Namely, imagine the ball in a
trough between two hills. The ball
returns to its stable equilibrium
position after being perturbed
up to a limit.
 Fluids in rigid body motion
In this section we obtain relations for the variation of
pressure in fluids moving like a solid body with or without
acceleration in the absence of any shear stresses (i.e., no
motion between fluid layers relative to each other).

Many fluids such as milk and gasoline are transported in

tankers. In an accelerating tanker, the fluid rushes to the
back, and some initial splashing occurs. But then a new free
surface (usually nonhorizontal) is formed, each fluid particle
assumes the same acceleration, and the entire fluid moves
like a rigid body. No shear stresses develop within the fluid
body since there is no deformation and thus no change in
shape. Rigid-body motion of a fluid also occurs when the
fluid is contained in a tank that rotates about an axis.
 Fluids in rigid body motion

The differential fluid element

behaves like a rigid body,
Newtons second law of
motion for this element can
be expressed as

The forces acting on the

fluid element consist of body
forces such as gravity (and
also electrical and magnetic
forces), and surface forces
such as the pressure forces
 Rigid-body motion of fluids

Similarly,
 Rigid-body motion of fluids
The general equation of motion for a fluid that acts as a rigid body
(no shear stresses) is determined to be

This relation can be expressed as

or, in scalar form in the three orthogonal directions, as

 Rigid-body motion of fluids

Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest

Special Case 2:
Free Fall of a Fluid Body

When the direction of motion is reversed and the fluid is forced to

accelerate vertically with az = +g by placing the fluid container in an
elevator or a space vehicle propelled upward by a rocket engine, the
pressure gradient in the z-direction is P/z = -2g. Therefore, the
pressure difference across a fluid layer now doubles relative to the
stationary fluid case.
 Rigid-Body Motion
Acceleration on a Straight Path
A 2-D (ay = 0) container is
accelerated on a straight
path with a constant
r
acceleration.r
P gk a

P P P
ax , ay , g ax
x y z

Pressure variation:
 Rigid-Body Motion
Acceleration on a Straight Path
Therefore, pressure is independent of y. Then the total differential of
P = P(x, z), which is (P/x) dx + (P/z) dz, becomes

For = constant, the pressure difference between two points 1 and 2

in the fluid is determined by integration to be

Taking point 1 to be the origin (x = 0, z = 0) where the pressure is P0

and point 2 to be any point in the fluid (no subscript), the pressure
distribution can be expressed as
 Rigid-Body Motion
Acceleration on a Straight Path
The vertical rise (or drop) of the
free surface at point 2 relative
to point 1 can be determined by
choosing both 1 and 2 on the
free surface (so that P1 = P2),
and solving for z2 - z1, vertical
rise for surface:

where zs is the z-coordinate of

the liquids free surface.
 Rigid-Body Motion
Acceleration on a Straight Path
Isobars: for surfaces of
constant pressure (On the
same isobar, dP = 0)

Conservation of mass implies

the rise of fluid level on one
side must be balanced by a
drop of fluid level on the
other side.
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
A glass filled with water is
rotated about its axis at a
constant angular velocity of
, The fluid is forced
outward as a result of the
so-called centrifugal force,
and the free surface of the
liquid becomes concave.
This is known as the forced
vortex motion.

After initial transients, the

liquid will move as a rigid
body together with the
container. There is no
deformation, and thus there
can be no shear stress, and
every fluid particle in the
container moves with the
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container

Container is rotating about the z-axis

ar r 2 , a az 0
P P P
r 2 , 0, g
r z
Total differential of P = P(r,z)
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container

On an isobar, dP = 0

dzisobar r 2 2 2
zisobar r C1
dr g 2g

The value of the integration constant

C1 is different for different paraboloids
of constant pressure (i.e., for different
isobars). For the free surface, setting r
= 0 gives zisobar(0) = C1 = hc, where hc
is the distance of the free surface from
the bottom of the container along the
axis of rotation. Then the equation for
the free surface becomes
 Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
The original volume of the fluid in the container

The volume of a cylindrical shell element of radius r, height zs,

and thickness
dr is dV = 2rzs dr. Then the volume of the paraboloid formed
by the
free surface is

From conservation of mass, we can get

The equation of the free surface

Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
The maximum vertical height occurs at
the edge where r = R, and the
maximum height difference between
the edge and the center of the free
surface is determined by evaluating zs
at r = R and also at r = 0, and taking
their difference,

When r " constant, the pressure difference

between two points 1 and 2 in the fluid is
determined by integrating,
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Taking point 1 to be the origin (r = 0, z = 0) where the
pressure is P0 and point 2 to be any point in the fluid (no
subscript), the pressure distribution can be expressed as

Note that at a fixed radius, the pressure varies hydrostatically

in the vertical direction, as in a fluid at rest. For a fixed vertical
distance z, the pressure varies with the square of the radial
distance r, increasing from the centerline toward the outer
edge. In any horizontal plane, the pressure difference between
the center and edge of the container of radius R is