The Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course Module 13

Welding stresses, Distortion

and Repair welding
 Contents

Welding stresses

Distortion and its control

Repair Welding
 Introduction
Welding has been extensively developed as a method of joining materials. The
weld joints have substantial advantage over other types of joints.
Stresses and distortion developed during welding have adverse influence on
the quality of welded structure.
The theory of welding stresses and strains is one of the complex aspects of
welding science
It unites problems of thermal conductivity, elasticity, plasticity and creep of
metals over wide range rapidly changing temperature
The residual stresses and distortions can be controlled or reduced by applying
various measures , quality and reliability of the fabricated components can be
ensured.
Hence study of Residual stresses and Distortion is an important topic for
welding engineers.
Failure of a
Bridge ???
 4.3.1. Residual Stresses

Residual stresses are self balancing

internal system of stresses in a weldment
arising from non-uniform mechanical or
thermal strains with some measure of
plastic flow.

These would exist in a body if all external

forces are removed.
 Residual stresses
Definition:
Residual stresses are self balancing internal system of stresses arising from non-uniform
mechanical or thermal straining with some measure of plastic flow. These stresses exist in
a body when all external forces are removed.

As long as theses stresses are above the yield point of the metal at the prevailing
temperature, they continue to produce permanent deformation, but in so doing they are
relieved and fall to yield - stress level. Then they cease to cause further distortion.

But, if at this point we could release the weld from plate by cutting along the joint line , it
would shrink further because , even when distortion has stopped , the weld still contain an
elastic strain equivalent to yield stress. The stresses left in the joint after welding are
referred to as residual stresses.
 Residual stress

Prevention: Stress relief heat

treatment, reduce volume of weld
metal, placing weld along neutral
axis
 Distributions of residual stresses:
The fig shows the classical distributions of residual stresses arising from
simple contraction and reaction produced in three directions viz 1) Longitudinal,2)
Transverse 3) Through thickness direction

Longitudinal stress at the weld and parent material

Is near yield stress. Moving towards edge from
HAZ , the stresses fall to zero and then there is
compressive stress.

Without Fixed
ends
 Residual stress
distribution on load

The fig shows the residual

stress distribution in
longitudinal direction in a
butt weld.

Under tensile loading the

peak stress has become
more even
and has also decreased
Stresses Developed due to Welding
Contractional stresses developed due to
solidification of the weld pool
Stresses developed due to localised heating
and cooling of the weld zone and parent
metal
eg. volume reduction on solidification for C-
Mn steel weld metal will be approx 3% and
at heat-affected zone will be by another 7%
Degree of stress will depend on cooling rate
which will be influenced by section
thickness, climatic conditions, air drafts etc.
Stresses developed due to physical restraint
ie. use of jigs & fixtures, use of stiffeners
and clamps and cleats
Causes for Development of Stresses
Non-uniform local thermal expansion /
contraction causes stresses to develop in the
welded component and change its
dimensions whereby the structure is
distorted
(for information Linear expansion coefficient
of mild steel is 12 X 10-6 per 0 C

During heating the components will expand

freely, but during cooling zones heated above
plastic temperature ( for mild steel 900
950 ) will yield due to the stresses
developed, resulting in dimensional change
or distortion.
4.3.3. Effects Of Residual Stresses

Proneness to weld cracking

Stress corrosion and cracking
Distortion of workpieces when welded
Distortion of weldeded objects when
machining
Brittle fracture
Adverse effects on brittle strengths
and structural behaviour of weldment
 4.3.4. Types And Source Of
Residual Stresses
In general residual stresses can be
classified into two groups viz, macro and

micro stresses.
They can be further classified into three

kinds of residual stresses : 1st, 2nd and 3rd

kind
 4.3.5.Residual stresses 1st kind

Residual stresses of the 1st

kind are nearly
homogeneous acting
across large areas, say
several grains of a material
and are in equilibrium over
the bulk of the material
4.3.6. Residual stresses 2nd
kind

Residual stresses of the 2nd

kind are nearly homogeneous
across microscopic areas, say
one grain or part of a grain, of
a material and are equilibrated
across a sufficient number of
grains.
 4.3.7. Residual stresses 3rd
kind
Residual stresses of the 3rd
kind are homogeneous across
sub-microscopic areas of a
material, say some atomic
distances within a grain and
are equilibrated across small
parts of a grain.
4.3.8. Types Of Residual Stresses

+py

p3

p2

p1

P1 : macro stresses
P2 : micro stresses
-py P3 : submicro stresses
 Factors influencing residual stresses

Material properties , Welding processes, Welding

sequence

Material properties:
1) The temperature distributions in weldment characterized by thermal
conductivity and diffusivity.
diffusivity
2) The thermal expansion
3) Mechanical properties at elevated temperature

Welding processes: As the heat input varies , the selection of process influence
residual stresses

Welding sequence: Along the weld the effect of welding sequence is minor. Block
welding sequence produce less shrinkage than multilayer sequences
 Basic effects of residual
stresses
1) The effect of welding stresses on the performance of welded
structures is significant on phenomena which occur under low applied
stress , such as brittle fracture and stress corrosion cracking .

2) As the level of applied stress increases , the effect of residual stress

decreases

3) Beyond yielding the effect is negligible on the performance of

welded structure

4) The effect of residual stress tends to decrease after repeated loading

 Methods of reducing residual
stresses
Mechanical methods
&
Thermal methods
Residual stresses have their origin in complex thermal
and mechanical interactions
Their removal or removal demands the use of mechanical
or thermal treatments.

The treatments control or improve the following

1) Distortion during welding
2) Service performance of the weldment
3) Weldability
4) Dimensional stability and machinablity
4.3.13. Stress Relieving

Vibratory stress relieving

Thermal stress relief by
a. Furnace. B. Induction coil
Mechanical tumbling
Peening at the weldment by
hammering with a peening hammer
Proof stressing by uniform heavy
loading of weldment
 Mechanical methods
Monotonic overload & Vibratory conditioning
Monotonic overload:
1) Proof stressing Uniform heavy loading of weldments decrease
longitudinal residual stresses by the amount of overload. Cylindrical
and spherical pressure vessels are proof stressed by hydrostatic loading

2)Peening: It is a local form of overload . The process produces a local

compressively stressed surface layer so that the magnitude and
uniformity of stress , and the depth of layer, can be held constant over
the whole of the component.
Vibratory conditioning
Vibratory stress relief uses mechanical energy in the form of low and
high frequency vibrations . A Vibrating device induces vibration at the
natural resonant frequencies of the structure treated
 Thermal methods
Thermal stress relief is a heat treatment process by which
the structure is uniformly heated to a temperature below
the critical range , holding it at this temperature for a
predetermined time , followed by uniform cooling.
Stresses are reduced to a level just below the yield point
of the material at the temperature of the treatment. The
residual stress remaining will depend on rate of cooling.
The process improves the mechanical properties
resistance to crack propagation and corrosion resistance.
Effects of Temperature&
Time
The percentage of relief of internal stresses is dependent on
steel type , composition, or yield strength.
 Residual stress
measurements
Physical measurements & mechanical measurements
Physical methods used to measure existing total stress
directly without destroying the specimen.

X-ray diffraction is a widely used physical method

Mechanical techniques measures the stress relieved by

removing material from the specimen.

Stress relaxation techniques and cracking techniques are

mechanical methods
 X-ray diffraction
X- ray diffraction technique is one of the methods
widely used to analyze residual stress distribution in
weld seam and near the welded region.
 The Deep-Hole Drilling Technique
The DHD stress measurement technique is a semi-invasive, mechanical strain relief technique
(i.e. the strain of the component is measured during stress relief from the removal of a small
amount of material). The DHD technique consists of the following 5 stages:
 Contour Method: Principle
The Contour Method is Based on an Elastic Superposition Principle:

Start with your part. These are the residual stresses that you
would like to measure
Experimentally cut the part in two. The part
will deform from the release of the stresses
Then experimentally measure the contour,
or shape, of the newly created surface

Now analytically
force the cut surface back flat. This gives the
original residual stresses normal to the cut
plane!

It really is simple, but gives you a full 2-D

map of the original residual stresses over
the cross-section of the part!
 What is weld distortion
Distortion in weld results from expansion & contraction of weld metal & base metal
during heating and cooling of the welding process
During heating & cooling cycle -- physical & mechanical properties changes which
affect shrinkage and leads to distortion
Yield strength--
Elasticity -- Decreases
Weld area temperature Thermal conductivity

Thermal expansion Increases

Specific heat

Typical distortion
of a plate
 Reasons for distortion
Why distortion occurs ?

The bar of steel shown in fig (2) is uniformly heated it expands in all directions
and after cooling returns to original dimensions ( Unrestrained)

If restrained, as shown in (b) during heating, it can expand only in vertical direction
(deformed vertically)
On cooling it contracts uniformly as shown in (c) deformed permanently

The same process occurs during welding the heated metal restrains surrounding cooler
metal and results in distortion

Fig 2

F
i
g
 Distortion from Welding Processes
Non-uniform shrinkage of weld bead
Difficult to maintain alignments
Solution: Rigid fixtures, pre-compensate for warping, loose
tolerances

Kalpakjian
Six main types of distortion
Longitudinal shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
produced by non-uniform
contraction
Bowing and dishing weld
center does not coincide with
the neutral axis
Buckling due to
compressive stresses
Twisting occurs in box-
sections caused by unequal
longitudinal thermal expansion
Types of distortion
Six types of distortion
Five factors affecting distortion

Parent material properties play a big role in

determining the stress generated during welding
- coefficient of expansion
- thermal conductivity
Amount of restraint components without any
restraint will be free to distort.
Joint design improper joint and welding
sequence design is a major factor for distortion.
Part/joint fit-up improper fit-up and excessive
joint gap causes distortion
Welding procedure This influences the degree of
distortion mainly through its effect on heat-input
 4.3.9. Factors influencing
shrinkage and distortion

As the temperature increases

Yield strength decreases

Modulus of elasticity decreases

Coefficient of thermal expansion

increases
Thermal conductivity decreases

Specific heat increases

4.3.10. Factors Influencing
Shrinkage And Distortion
Other factors during welding :
External clamping

Internal restraint due to mass

Stiffness of the steel plate

Welding process

Welding procedure

Type and size of electrode

Speed of travel

Joint design

Pre-heating and cooling rate

4.3.14. Measurement Of
Distortion
Distortion resulting from longitudinal weld :
2
l d = 0.005 ( A .d. L ) / I
Where :
A = Total cross sectional area of all welds
d = Distance between neutral axis and

centre of gravity of the weld

L = Length of member assuming full
length
of weld
I = Moment of inertia of the member
 4.3.15. Transverse Shrinkage

Transverse shrinkage measure is given

by :

d = 0.10. (Total area of

weld)/thickness t

= 0.10. Average width of weld

4.3.16. Angular Distortion
Angular distortion is measured
1.3 2
by :
a
d = 0.02. w.W / t
Where :
w = flange width
W = Weld leg
T = Flange thickness
 Extent of Distortion allowed

Type of Type of weld Allowed

shrinkage weld
shrinkage
Longitudinal Fillet 0.8 mm / 3m
of weld
Butt weld 3 mm per 3m
of weld
Transverse Fillet 0.8 mm per
weld
Butt weld 1.5-3 mm per
Design principles to control
distortion
Minimise the amount of weld metal
Avoid over welding
Place welds about the neutral axis
Use intermittent welding in preference to
continuous weld pass
Balance the welding about the middle of the
joint using a double-V joint in preference to a
single-V joint for plates above half inch thick
Eliminate welding by forming the plate and
using rolled and / or extruded sections
 DISTORTION CONTROL

Distortion of work during welding, caused by unequal expansion

and contraction and by shrinkage of deposited weld metal can be
reduced by employing distortion control methods.

The common methods used to control distortion are :

1. Presetting 2. Restraining 3. Weld sequence

4. Chills 5. Joint preparation 6. Pre/post heating

Prevention of Distortion by Design
Elimination of welding by
Forming the plate

Use of rolled or extruded

sections
Design should use

intermittent welds, by
attaching stiffening plates
Where possible avail use of

rolled and or extruded

sections
Weld placement
Placing the welds around the

neutral axis
Balancing of welds

intermittently on either side

Welding alternatively on

opposite sides of the joint

where possible
Prevention of Distortion by
Reducing the volume of weld
Design Metal
Weld shrinkage is proportional

to the amount of weld metal

Reduce angle of V joint
Since angular distortion is
proportional to number of
passes - reducing the number
of runs by using higher size
electrodes
Cross-sectional area of double
V nearly half that of single-V
Use of balanced welding
The adjacent figure gives an
effective means of controlling
distortion in multi-pass butt
welding by arranging the
welding sequence
 Distortion control
During welding

Avoid over welding

-Correctly size the weld for
adequate requirement

More metal placed greater shrinkage

forces--- Causes distortion

Fillet weld flat or slight convex

bead adequate

Avoid excess reinforcement

highly convex weld bead to
Fillet & butt
minimize shrinkage forces
welds
 Edge preparation & fit up

Design of weld joint plays an important role

Double beveling reduces weld volume

Both side welding balances weld stress

Use of pre-setting & pre-
bending Pre-setting of parts
To achieve correct alignment
after welding in order to
prevent angular distortion
in a) fillet joints b) butt joints
Also pre-set Tapered gap
to prevent closure
Pre-bending of parts
Using press breaks and
wedges to accommodate
Angular distortion in thin
plates
Use of restraint to prevent
distortion

Welding jigs and fixtures Flexible clamps

Strong back with wedges Fully welded strong backs

Note : Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of
welds for restraint techniques, including pre-heat to avoid defects
 Prevention of Distortion by
Fabrication Technique
Tack Welding
Ideal for setting and
maintaining joint gap
Alternative tack-welding
sequences ( ref figure )
a) Tack-weld straight
through to end of joint
b) Tack-weld one end, then
use back-step technique
for tacking rest of joint
Tack space = 100 mm + 16T c) Tack-weld the center,
Tack length = 3T then complete the tack-
Thickness of plate = T welding by the back-
step technique
Prevention of Distortion by
Fabrication Technique
Stiffening
Longitudinal stiffeners welded
along each side of the butt-welded
seam prevents bowing
Back-to-back assembly clamping
two identical components back-to-
back for tacking and welding
Welding process - Suitable welding
procedure, technique and sequence
reduces
distortion level
Use balanced welding about the
neutral axis
Keep the weld deposit to the
minimum specified size
Use MIG in preference to MMA
Keep time between runs to a
minimum and deposit weld metal
as quickly as possible
Use least number of runs to fill the
joints
Intermittent welding Minimum passes

Good

(c) Intermittent Welding (d) Minimum Number of Passes

Intermittent welding instead of continuous welding reduces distortion

For attaching stiffeners -- intermittent weld will reduce weld metal
yet provides the needed strength

Fewer passes with large size electrodes are preferable than

a greater numbers of passes with small size electrodes
Shrinkage caused by each pass tends to be cumulative, thereby increases total shrinkage
Welding near neutral axis distortion is minimized by providing smaller
leverage for the shrinkage forces to pull the plates out alignment fig( e)design of the
weldment and welding sequence can used effectively to control distortion

Poor
Poor

Good Good

(e) Welding near Neutral Axis (f) Balancing Welds around

Neutral Axis

Balance welds around neutral axis offsets one shrinkage force

with another and effectively controls distortion Design of the assembly and
proper sequence of welding are important.
Back step welding technique
The general progression of welding is from left to right,
But each bead segment is deposited from right to left.

As each bead segment is placed the heated edges expands and separates
Plates at B , but the heat moves out across the plate to C , thereby
brings the plates together.
ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Presetting of parts before welding makes

shrinkage to perform
Constructive work The required amount
of preset determined
from few trial welds

Prebending /prespringing processes use

opposing forces to counter distortion
during welding

Position identical weld joints back to

back, and clamp them together
Another method of providing restraint is to clamp the work so that it cannot
distort, a JIG or FIXTURE may be used for this purpose, or the work may be
clamped to the work bench.

2. RESTRAINING
 3. WELD SEQUENCES
This method of distortion control sets an expansion force from the weld being
deposited, against the contraction forces of a weld which has just been deposited
and is cooling down.

Welding a circular patch

Welding a longitudinal joint
 SKIP WELDING

This weld sequence may be used to bring the whole of the joint to a fairly
even temperature by depositing welds in a planned sequence.

This results in more equal expansion of the work during welding and equal
contraction during cooling.
 4. CHILLS
Chills are thick blocks of metal which help to conduct heat away from the joint,
they also stop the welding heat from spreading into the base metal.

Chills are often used in a welding

jig.
This combines two methods of distortion control. The chills can be made
from copper which is a good conductor of heat, aluminium and steel can
also be used.
 Another method of removing heat from the joint area is to use a heat
absorbing paste, this is useful when the job has an awkard shape, for example
welding a patch on a car.

It would not be practical to use metal chills for this type of job.
 5. PREHEATING

This means heating the work before carrying out the welding operation.

The effect of preheating is to expand the work in order to avoid unequal

expansion forces when the joint is heated during welding and to allow the
work to contract evenly on cooling.

Preheating as a means of distortion control has little use when welding thin
sheet, but can be of advantage when welding thicker sections, as it offsets heat
losses by conduction.

Preheating allows smaller nozzle sizes when gas welding and lower current
settings when arc welding. Welding speeds may be increase and it is easier
to obtain good penetration and fusion.
 Post heating

If a joint has been restrained to prevent it from distorting, by

the use of strongbacks for example, a postheat treatment may
be applied before the strongbacks are removed.

This will remove any stresses which have been absorbed by

the elasticity of the metal and prevent the joint from springing
out of shape.
 6. JOINT PREPARATION

The greater the included angle of a vee preparation, the greater the amount of
angular distortion of the completed weld.

To reduce distortion the smallest practicable included angle should be used

If the plate is thick enough to warrant a single U preparation, then this

would have the effect of reducing distortion.

Where a double vee can be used, sequence welding in an asymmetrical

manner may be used to control distortion.
The use of STRONGBACKS is a method of restraint where a strong piece of
metal is tacked to the opposite side of the joint to hold it during welding,
the strongback is removed when the weld joint has cooled.
Welding sequence
A well planned weld sequence placing the weld metal at different points of the
assembly so that, as the structure shrinks in one place, it counteracts the forces
of the welds already made

Welding alternatively on both sides of the neutral axis

Making intermittent weld as shown below

Distortion correction
techniques
Mechanical techniques
Hammering

Pressing
Distortion Correction
Techniques Thermal technique by
localised
Heating

Spot heating used mainly to

remove buckling in thin sheet

Line heating components

heated along the line of weld to
correct angular distortion

Restrict the area of heating to

avoid over-shrinkage of the
component
Distortion Correction
Wedge shaped heating
Techniques Used to correct distortion in

large complex fabrication

including box-shaped structures

For the heat to penetrate

evenly through the plate
thickness, heat from the base

Limit the temperature to 6500C

to prevent metallurgical
damage and to avoid over
shrinkage
 Heat sinks
In sheet metal welding , a water cooled jig
as shown in Fig removes heat from
the weld components Copper tubes are brazed
And water is circulated

Strong back
Clip and wedge assembly forces the plate
edges into alignment during welding
Distortion control after welding
Peening
Peening is the mechanical working of metals by means of hammer blows or by
blasting with shot (shot peening). Peening is a cold work process. It tends to
expand the surface of the cold metal, thereby relieving tensile stresses and/or
inducing compressive stresses. Peening also encourages strain hardening of the
surface metal.
Peening the bead stretches it and makes it thinner, thus relieving (by plastic
deormation) the stresses induced by contraction as the metal cools.
However this method is done with care. The root bead and final beads are not
permitted to undergo peening because of the possibility of concealing a crack or
causing one and undesirable work-hardening effect. The utility of this technique is
limited.

For this reason peening is not normally accepted by the majority of codes,
standards or specifications (ex. ASME B31.3 para 328.5.1 (d)). Any peening that
is carried out on a weld should have been carried out on the weld procedure
qualification test piece
 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT:
.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) includes any heat treatment after
welding. The process involves controlled heating of weldments to an
elevated temperature, followed by controlled cooling The objectives of
PWHT of carbon steel and low-alloy steel weldments are to relieve welding
residual stresses, decrease hardness of the heat affected zone, improve
ductility and notch toughness, and release diffusible hydrogen. Among
these objectives, stress relieving is the main purpose.
Repair
Welding
4.9.1. Repair Of Welds

Every weld needs inspection before it is

put to use. There may be some defects
or discontinuities in the weld which may
fail to meet the specified standards.

In such cases the welds are to be

repaired / rectified through acceptable
standard procedures for acceptance.
 4.9.2. Weld Repair Procedure
Specification
The procedure to be applied to
repair/ rectify the welds is :
Visual and other inspection

Locate and find extent of defect

Remove defective part of weld

Clean and prepare joint to weld

Select and use proper consumable

Inspect after welding.

 4.9.3. Visual Inspection
Visual inspection of the weld to locate
external discontinuities :

1. Under cut
2. Root defects
3. Spatter
4. Irregular weld bead
5. Surface cracks
6. Surface porosity
7. Unfilled craters
 4.9.4. Visual Inspection
Following equipment may be used
in visual inspection process :
1. Magnifying glass

2. Dye penetrants

3. Telescope

4. Gauges

5. Optical comparator.
4.9.5. Internal Defects
Internal defects can be
detected by the following
methods :
1. Ultra sonic tests

2. Magna-flux testing

3. Radiographic testing.

4. Micro-hardness testing
 4.9.6.Removal Of The Defective
Part Of Weld
Defective part of the weld can be
removed
by :
1. Flame cutting

2. Arc gouging

3. Chipping

4. Grinding

5. Machining
 4.9.7. Cleaning And
Preparation Of Joint
The joint must be thoroughly
cleaned and dried to remove :
Dirt and dust

Oil and grease

Carbonaceous particles

Moisture

Inserts/spacers

Dye penetrant chemicals

4.9.8. Welding Of The Joint
Welding of the removed part of the
joint is to be done as per
specification for the original weld
Check and set the gap

Set the current as specified

Pre-heat if required

Weld as per approved procedure

Apply post-weld heat treatment if

required
Inspect the weld

Record the process, procedure and

inspection
4.4.9.Procedural Qualifications
It is imperative that to carry out
either welding or repair of welds
procedural qualifications are to be
used. The A.S.M.E. Section IX
specifies use of :
Welding procedure specification

Procedure qualification record

Welders performance qualification

 Summary

Distortion :
Influencing factors Material properties-Joint design-restraint- welding procedure
Control measures: Minimize heat input, control on weld size, follow weld sequence
Weld fixtures Mechanical & Thermal methods Peening & Controlled heating

Residual stresses:
Types of stresses Stress distribution in Longitudinal , transverse and through
thickness direction
Effect of residual stresses on mechanical properties- geometry corrosion resistance
Methods of control / reduction Mechanical and thermal methods Vibration / PWHT
Measurement methods Physical & Mechanical X-ray & Deep hole drilling technique
Thank You