RELIGION AND

SOCIETY
 INTRODUCTION: NATURE AND
DEFINITION OF RELIGION
from the Latin word RELIGARE meaning to bind together
Is the belief in spiritual beings and the institutions and practices
associated with these beliefs. (Taylor, 1871)
Refers to any set of doctrines providing overall answers to
ultimate and existential questions for which there are no
empirical answers. (Gelliner)
Embodies beliefs or representations which express the nature of
sacred things as well as rites prescribing how a person should
behave in the presence of sacred objects. (Evans-Pritchard
1965)
Involves a set of symbols which arouses feelings of reverence or
awe and are linked to rituals or ceremonial such as church
services practiced by a community of believers (Giddens, 1989)
 Is a culturally entrenched pattern of behavior composed of
sacred beliefs, emotional feelings accompanying the belief, and
overt conduct implementing the beliefs and feelings (John Cuber)
A set of symbolic forms and acts that relate the ultimate
conditions of his existence (Robert Bellah)
Any specific system of belief and worship; often involving in a
code of ethics and a philosophy (The New World Dictionary)
A system of social coherence based on a common group of
beliefs or attitudes concerning an object, person, unseen being,
or system of thought considered to be supernatural, sacred,
divine or highest truth, and the moral codes, practices, values,
institutions, traditions, and rituals, associated with such belief or
system of thought (Wikipedia)
Bond between God and man
 SUB-CATEGORIES OF RELIGION
Prophetic- strongly associated with Rebuild Religion
- the role of prophets over and above the actual divine
revelations is given a special status
-the prophets exist to guide and warn society
Revealed- Law-giving Religion
- are those which find their symbolic center in some set
of revelations handed down by a god or gods
- contained in the religions Holy Scriptures
Salvation- primarily a creation of Christianity because of its
emphasis on sin and salvation
Sacramental- sacrament comes from the Latin word
sacramentum meaning an oath a sacred thing, a mystery
- concept referred to an oath of allegiance
 Mystical- mystical experiences play the most important role in
terms of understanding nature, learning about the divine, and
becoming a religiously devoted person
Tribal- best understood in terms of what it is not
- it does not claim to have a religious message for all of
humanity
- it does not offer any means of universal salvation
- it does not purport to have a unique insight to the will of any
gods
- it does not expect anyone else to care very much about what
it has to say.
Nature- considered among the most primitive religious beliefs
- probably the earliest sort of religious system
developed by human beings
 BASIC ELEMENTS AND COMPONENTS OF RELIGION
Sacred Objects- the range of objects deemed sacred in each
religions can vary widely
- can be a supernatural being or force, or a ghost or
spirit with supernatural powers
- can be a moral principle or a particular object that
symbolizes deep-seated feelings
- Ex. A tribe may consider the forest as a supernatural
being while monotheists believe in a single deity called God,
Yahweh, Allah
-Sometimes it may simply be a force which may
reside in a tree, a lizard, a crucifix or a statue
- it gives the members of the religion a shared sense of
the reality of the supernatural, or of what is sometimes called the holy
 Sacred Beliefs- sacred things derive their meaning from the beliefs
that sustain or underlie them
- Ex. A crucifix is sacred to Christians because it
presupposes a belief in the resurrection
Rituals- visible and symbolic expressions of a religion
- prescribed ways of performing religious acts
- Ex. Group prayers, bible study, evangelizing, food offerings to
the gods and etc

Religious Community- composed of those unique social

characters of religion
-composed of those who share common beliefs and practices
about the sacred
- The idea of society is the soul of religion Durkheim
- Durkheim felt community and religion are inseparable
because 1) religion both celebrates 2) religion creates community
 TECHNIQUES OF RELIGION
Refers to the general acts performed according to the requirements
of the beliefs

1. Prayer- refers to the communication with the supernatural

powers through thoughts or speech

2. Sacrifice- expresses the desire to please the supernatural powers

by gift-giving. Ex. Animal offering to please the gods.
3. Reference- refers to the awe coupled with the love and admiration
which one offers to the supernatural powers
4. Divination- the control by foreknowledge of supernatural powers
5. Taboo- negative presentation of propitiatory devises wherein the
person should abstain from certain acts which are presumed inimical to
the desires of the gods
-refers to the thou shall not behavior
- Ex. Incest taboo (thou shall not practice incest)
6. Duty- opposite of taboo
- attempts to please the supernatural by positive acts
- thou shall behavior
- Ex. Love thy neighbors
7. Ritual- refers to the prescribed way of performing religious acts
- Ex. Preying, exorcism, fasting, making the sign of the cross
8. Ceremony- involves a number of interconnected and related rituals
performed at a given time
- Ex. Holy mass, marriage ceremony

9. Magic- an attempt to put into operation certain forces which will

produce desired results
GROUPS OF THEORIES ON
THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION
There are two broad groups
of theories about the origin
of religion namely Faith-
Based and Science-Based.
 Faith-Based There are about 19 major world religions, subdivided
into a total of 270 large religious groups, and many unique faith
groups. Among these religions of great diversity, there are probably
hundreds of different religious creation stories which describe how
humans, other species of life, the earth and the rest of the universe
came to be. Ex. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and many more.
Science-Based Anthropologists, evolutionary biologists and other
researchers have reached proto-humans who originated somewhere
in Africa. These proto-humans aided their chances of surviving in a
cruel and unpredictable world. During their evolution from proto-
human to full human, they developed questions about themselves
and the environment such as:

What controlled the seasonal cycles of nature the daily motion of the sun; the
motion of the stars; the passing of the season etc..?

What controlled their environment what or who caused floods, rains dry spells,
storms, etc..?

What controls fertility of the tribe, its animals and crops?

What system of morality is needed to best promote the stability of the tribe?

And above all: what happens to a person after he/she dies?

People living in the prehistoric society had no way of resolving these
questions. Even today, with all of our scientific advances, we still
debate about the second last question and still have no way of
researching a consensus on the last. Some people within the tribe
started to invent answers based on their personal guesses and
hunches. Thus developed:
The first religious beliefs system
The first priesthood
The first set of rituals to appease the Gods and Goddesses
Other rituals to control fertility and other aspects of the environment
A set of behavioral expectations for members of the tribe
A set of moral truths to govern human behavior
It is unfortunate that because these belief systems were based on
hunches, the various religious teachings which developed in different
areas of the world were all different. Their teachings were in conflict
with each other because the followers of most religions considered
their beliefs to be derived directly from God, they cannot be easily
changed. Thus, inter-religious compromise is difficult or impossible. Also,
because religious texts are often ambiguous, divisions developed within
religions. Different denominations, schools or traditions have derived
different meanings from the same religious texts. Thus were laid the
foundations for inter-religious and intra-religious conflicts.
 MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF
SOCIETY AND RELIGION
Three Theoretical Camps According to Christopher Newman
on his article The Sociology of Religion the modern
sociological study of society and religion can be split into three
distinct theoretical camps. They are consensus (Emile
Durkheim), conflict (Marxism) and change (Max Weber)
 Consensus The functionalist perspective changes the emphasis from
individual human need to the need of the society.
Functionalism is primarily concerned with the role religion plays in society.
It requires that all societal institutions and structures perform a useful
purpose in order to create consensus.
Emile Durkheim argues that all societies divide the world into two
categories: the sacred and the profane, and religion is based on this
division.
To Durkheim, sacred things act as totems to which groups and individuals
ascribe power and importance. These totems represent or become
symbolic of society. Durkheim argues that the totem is at once the
symbol of god and of the society, is that not because god and society
are one?.
Durkheim emphasized the importance of collective worship; by coming
together during religious rituals the social group expresses its beliefs in
common values and therefore society is strengthened. From that
perspective, religion is a force of control producing consensus.
 Conflict The Marxist theory identifies religion as a major player in the
relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, a
relationship based on conflict.
Based on a two-class system whereby the bourgeoisie, who own the
means of production, extract surplus value from the proletariat who
only own their labor. This is a relationship based on exploitation and
inherits economic conflict.
Marx saw religion as part of the capitalist superstructure, and as a
tool for subverting dissidence and achieving control. Religion can
also dull the pain of oppression in a number of ways.
 Change Weber argues that, in some circumstances, religion can
lead to social change.
He believes that, in certain circumstances, religious beliefs can
influence economic behavior. He argues that meaning drives human
action; that is, individuals subjectively interpret the world around
them which directs their actions and helps form a world view as in
economics.
In his famous book The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism,
Weber attempts to demonstrate the relationship between the rise of
western capitalism and certain forms of Protestantism. He argues that
the inherent ascetic ethos of Protestantism, that of an austere life cycle
and rigorous self-discipline, as well as the individualistic need to
succeed in ones calling, ideally mixed with industrialization.
 EVOLUTION OF RELIGION

According to David Barret et al, editors of the World Christian

Encyclopedia, the first organized religions appear to have been
based on fertility. They were focused on the worship of the great Earth
Goddess. Religions evolved to include male gods who were gradually
given increased importance by the priests. Developing knowledge of
the males involvement in the process of reproduction may have
caused this development.
Today, most people follow either:
a monotheistic religion is one, in which a single male god is worshiped

a henotheistic religion is a religion which recognizes a single male

deity, but which recognizes other gods and goddesses, heroes, or
saints as facets or manifestations or aspects of that supreme god.
Religions were originally based on the particular beliefs of their founders
and prophets. Thus, there were few points of similarity among the
various spiritual paths:

In terms of their belief about supernatural being(s), various faith

traditions have taught Agnosticism, Aminism, Atheism, Deism,
Duotheism, Henotheism, Monism, Monotheism, Panentheism,
Polytheism, Trinitarianism, and probably a few others.
Few arguments exist among the worlds religions about religious
beliefs, sacred ritual, organizational structure, optimum family
structure, personal sexual behavior, etc.
Religions traditional teachings in the area of science differ greatly
from each other and from the findings of scientists. Examples are:
how the universe was formed, where rainbows came from, the world-
wide flood, the sun standing still in the sky, the cause of epilepsy,
mental illness, demonic possession, etc.
TYPES OF RELIGION
WHAT IS RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS?

IT IS THE BODY OF BELIEFS
PLUS RITUALS AND PRACTICES
PRODUCED.
THE THREE MAJOR FORMS OF
RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION
CHURCH OR ECCLESIA
It is a large, conservative universal religious
institution and tends to acquire a certain amount of
social and political power.
Ex. Church in England, Muslim Shiites in Iran
DENOMINATIONS
Lies between the ecclesia and the sect on the
continuum.
CHARACTERISTIC OF DENOMINATION
1. similar to churches but unlike sects in being on
relatively good terms with the state and secular
powers and may even attempt to influence
government at times
2. maintain at least tolerant and usually fairly
friendly relationships with other denominations in a
context of religious pluralism
 3. rely primarily on birth for membership increase,
though it will also accept converts some actively
pursue evangelization
4. accept the principle of at least modestly
changing doctrine and practice and tolerate some
theological diversity and dispute
5. follow a fairly routinized ritual and worship
service that explicitly discourages spontaneous
emotional expression
6. train and employ professional clergy who must
meet formal requirements for certification
7. often draw disproportionately from the middle
and upper class of society
 SECT
It is a newly formed religious group that form
protest elements of their parent religion which
includes apostasy and heresy and liberal trends. It is
a small, exclusive uncompromising fellowship of
individuals seeking spiritual perfection. They are
characterized by ASCENTISM- austere, disciplined
life.
Ex. Iglesia Ni Kristo, Jehovas Witness, JMCIM,
PMCC, and MCGI
 IGLESIA NI KRISTO- founded by Felix Manalo Ysagun a.k.a Ka Felix in 1914. Their
source of authority includes the teachings and prophetic interpretations of Felix Y.
Manalo , The Holy Bible, Pasugo or Gods Message Magazine, and INC ministers.
Belief that Iglesia Ni Kristo is the only official name of the church, among others.

Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry- well known for its promotion of
miracles and healing through faith which is led by Evangelist Wilde E. Almeda. One
of their spiritual success is the untiring worship and praise its members perform to
give glory to Jesus Christ through psalms and musical instruments.

Kingdom of God- founded by Pastor Apollo C. Quibiloy, the Son of God in Gentile
setting and their source of authority is the Holy Bible. Their peculiar beliefs and
practices include: SALVATION IS THROUGH APOLLO C. QUIBILOY; HE IS THE
RESIDENCE OF THE FATHER JESUS CHRIST, THE TEM PLE OF GOD, THE LORD JESUS
CHRIST the FATHER.

Pentecostal Missionary Church of Christ- founded by Rev. Arsenio T. Ferriol,

APOSTLE ARSENIO FERRIOL, GOD SENT ONE, APOSTLE IN THE END OF TIME,
BELOVED APOSTLE LIVING APOSTLE, and SUGONG APOSTOL.

Members of Church of God International founded by Eliseo Soriano and Apalit,

Pampanga on March 30, 1977 and is known through its television program ANG
DATING DAAN and the members believed that all teachings should be based
upon the 66 books of the bible alone. They also reject the traditional Christian
doctrine of the Trinity.
 CULTS
These are religious movements that are at odds
with their social environment and which have no
prior ties with an established religious body in a
given society.

Starks and Bainbridge described three

types:
1. AUDIENCE CULTS- has no formal organization and members
are usually consumers of cult doctrines delivered in printed
materials.
2. CLIENT CULTS- religious leaders offer specific services to those
who follow them and its example is SCIENTOLOGY.
3. CULT MOVEMENTS- larger and tightly organized and an
example of this is TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION
 OTHER RECOGNIZED CULTS IN THE PHILIPPINES ARE:
A. RIZALISTAS- believed that Dr. Jose Rizal is the
second Son of God and reincarnation of Christ.
Also, one can find salvation by joining the group.
B. PHILIPPINE BENEVOLENT MISSIONARIES
ASSOCIATION- a pseudo-Christian cult founded by
Ruben Ecleo Sr. in 1965 on the Philippine Island of
Dinagat, off coast of Mindanao.
 MODERNIZATION
AND
RELIGIOUS CHOICE
Modernization has been a major source of social
change. This social change has had a profound
effect on the religious experience as people find
themselves confronted by dozens of
denominations, each claiming to be one true way.
PETER BURGER ( 1979 ) SUGGESTS THAT
PEOPLE HAVE THREE CHOICES:
They can affirm traditional religious authority in the face of modern challenges to
it. Examples are the many Catholics acceptance of the Popes pronouncements
against the use of contraceptives and in the authority of religious leaders in Iran

They can change their religious beliefs by reformulating them in modern times.
According to Berger, another way that people in modern society can preserve
their religious tradition is to secularize it. In addition, a German sociologist Max
Weber found that the 18th century Calvinism contained a built-in incentive for hard
work, self-denial deferred gratification, putting aside frivolity and pleasure to pursue
that all-important sign being among Gods elect- SUCCESS.

They can try to tap the wellsprings that gave birth and vitality to the original faith
and apply them to the modern world. It retains fundamental religious roots and
simultaneously incorporates aspects of the modern world.

This fundamental revival of traditional religion typically emphasized the absolute

authority of the Bible. The fundamentalist movement has focused on personal
conversion and salvation. Some examples includes: PENTECOSTALIST, BACK TO
JESUS MOVEMENTS, SOUTHERN BAPTISTS, MORMONS, SEVEMTH DAY ADVENTISTS,
BORN AGAIN MOVEMENTS
 FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
1. PROMOTING SOCIAL SOLIDARITY AND SOCIAL CONTROL
develops relationships, establish norms for proper behavior,
imposes sanctions against antisocial conduct and offers ways
of atoning mistakes through prayers and a like.
2. LEGITIMATION legitimates the established and dominant
groups within a society and religion often serves to reinforce
and justify existing social values and arrangements.
3. SOCIAL ADAPTATION immigrants adapt to new land and life
and provides ethnic cohesion and discipline that help
immigrants become upwardly mobile.
4. CONSECRATING LIFES EVENTS - birth, maturity, marriage and
death, universal features of the human life cycle are
celebrated and explained by practically all religions
5. EMOTIONAL SECURITY- provides explanations of the unknown
and therefore promotes emotional security. Prayer and
meditation can put one at peace with the world.
6. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS religion performs welfare, educational
and recreational functions. Aside from ministering the spiritual
needs, some religions attend to the temporal and bodily
needs of their members.
7. LATENT OR UNINTENDED FUNCTIONS:
Provides setting for sociability, as well as, worship (Horton And
Hunt, 1980)
Promotes passivity and subservience to the existing system for the
unquestioning attitude is developed (Tuibeo, 1990)
May also be disintegrating factor in society. Example: age-old
conflict between Jews and Muslims in Israel, bitter wars between
Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, and between
Christians and Muslims in Mindanao (Philippines)
May create guilt feelings which may eventually lead to personal
disorganization for non-conformists who are denounced by their
church.
May serve as a convenient tool rationalizing social inequality and
to divert the minds of impoverished and exploited masses from
their present miseries.
A potent force for challenging unjust social systems by
recapturing the democratic and revolutionary spirit of their faith,
the non-owning class, in solidarity with the dispossessed, can feel
justified in questioning and if necessary , in overthrowing social
systems which breed inequality, poverty and misery.
 WORLDS MAJOR RELIGIONS
WORLDS FOUNDER/ COUNTRY NO. DOCTRINES,
MAJOR YEAR FOUNDED OF ORIGIN OF TENETS, OR
RELIGIONS FOLLOWERS TEACHINGS
1. Bahai Mirza Husayn Ali Baghdad 5 million Oneness of
Nuri- 1844 god and
humanity,
equality for all,
Universal
education,
world peace,
world
government.
2. Buddhism Siddharta Southern 307 million Meditation
(Worlds 4th Gautama Nepal and righteous
largest (Buddha)- 5th actions
Religion) and 6th Century (karma) to
Nirvana (state
of
enlightenment)
3. Confusion Confucius 5th and China Uncertain
6th Century
Relationships
between
individuals, their
families and
society based on
li (proper
behavior) and
jen (sympathetic
attitude)
4. Catholicism Apostle Peter Rome 980 million
(Worlds largest Gospel of Jesus
religion) Christ, bible
teachings, seven
sacraments,
redemption
through Jesus
Christ as the sole
method of
salvation
5. Hinduism 1500 BC India 648 Million Veda and
(Worlds 3rd Upanishads (sacred
scriptures); practice
largest religion)
of yoga; Divine
Trinity representing
cyclical nature of
the universe:
BRAHMA the
creator, VISHNU the
preserver, SHIVA the
destroyer
6. Islam Prophet Saudi Arabia 840 million
Mohammed Worship of
610 AD Allah (GOD);
KORAN (holy
scripture), Islam
(submission to
god), Five
Pillars of Islam (
Prayer, giving
of alms, fast of
Ramadan,
pilgrimage to
Mecca)
7. Judaism Abraham, Judea 18 million Belief in
Isaac, and monotheistic
Jacob god whose
word is
revealed in the
TORAH HEBREW
BIBLE; 3 main
groups:
ORTHODOX
JEWS, REFORM
MOVEMENT,
and
CONSERVATIVE
8. Orthodox 5th Century Split from 158 million Biblical
Eastern Roman scriptures and
traditions,
Church Catholic guided by the
Church holy spirit as the
source of
Christian truth

9. Begun by R.W Quakertown, Uncertain Fraternal or

Rosicrucianis Little(1868) Pennsylvania religious
organization ,
m, Reuben claim to
Rosicrucian Swimbume empower the
Brotherhood Clymer(1902) members with
cosmic forces
by unveiling
secret wisdom
regarding the
laws of nature
10. Shinto 5th Century Ancient 3.5 million in Belief in many
AD native U.S spiritual beings
and gods known
religious of as kami and
Japan honored by
festivals and
reverence for
ancestors, stress
to remain pure
and sincere, and
enjoy life.s

11. Sikhism 500 years India 120 million Devotion to God

(Worlds 5th ago at all times,
open to all
largest through the
religion) teachings of its
10 Gurus
enshrined in the
Silkh Holy Book
and living Guru,
Sri Guru, Granth
Sahib
12.Taoism Lao Tzu(604 China Uncertain Derives primarily
BC) from the tao-te-
ching which
claims that an
ever changing
universe follows
the Tao or path

13. John Smith England 31 million Authority stems

Protestantism (1609) from the Bible,
oppose the use
A. Baptists And Roger of alcohol and
Williams tobacco,
(1638) Baptism is by
total immersion
Belief in New
Testament,
simple rites,
Baptism is of
B. Church of Presbyterians Kentucky, U.S 1.6 MILLION adults
Christ (1804)
C. Church of King Henry ENGLAND 6,000 IN U.S Supremacy of
England VIII (1534) the Bible,
doctrines and
creeds of Bible
and in the Book
of Common
Prayer.

Book of
D. Episcopal Samuel U.S 2.7 MILLION Common
Church Seabury as 1st Prayer and the
Bishop (1784) Bible, baptism
is of infants.

Bible
E. Lutheran Based on the Delaware, U.S 8 MILLION IN teachings,
Church writings of U.S salvation
Martin Luther through faith
(1638) conservatism in
religious and
social ethics,
baptism is of
infants, church
is organized in
synods
F. Methodist Rev. John U.S 13.5 MILLION Follow the Bible
Church Wesley- 1738 IN U.S interpreted by
traditions and
reason, church
is perfectionist I
social dealings,
have
communion,
baptism is of
infants and
adults

Follow the Bible

interpreted by
G. Pentecostal Methodist and U.S 3.5 MILLION IN traditions and
churches Protestants 2st U.S reason, church
e.g decade of 20th is perfectionist I
Assemblies of Century social dealings,
God have
communion,
baptism is of
infants and
adults
h. John Knox Scotland 3.2 million Faith is in the
Presbyterian (1557) Bible,
church Sacraments
are infant
baptism and
communion,
lay members
are called
presbyters,
emphasis on
the sermons

Grow out of North 734, 527 Bible is the

I. Seventh the teaching America only creed;
Day Adventist of William emphasize
Miller in 1863 the second
coming of
Jesus,
dedicate their
infants to god,
abstain from
alcohol and
tobacco
J. United General U.S Belief in the
Church Of Council of Bible is
Christ Congregation guided by the
al Christian statement of
Churches in faith, simple
1957 services,
emphasis on
sermon, infant
baptism and
communion

14. Other Faith is based

Christian on the book of
Based Mormons, the
doctrine and
Communities Joseph Smith New York Million
covenants,
A. Church of (1830) Holy Bible,
Jesus stress on
Christ of revelation
Latter- Day through
of Saints proselytizing
(Mormons) and
connection of
spiritual and
physical world
B. Jehovah's Charles T. U.S 6 MILLION Belief in the
Witnesses Russel Late in Second
19th Century Coming of
Christ and
salvation of
mortal souls,
members are
ministers who
proselytize their
faith with door
to door
missionary work
, refused
service in the
armed forces,
and will jot
participate in
politics, will not
accept blood
transfusions,
discourage
smoking,
drunkenness,
and gambling
C. Religious George Fox 17th England 113,000 Belief in the
Society of Century U.S doctrine of
Friends MEMBERS inner light,
(Quaker) the voice of
Gods Holy
Spirit, quiet
meditation
without
ritual or
sermon in
meetings,
active in
peace,
education,
and social
welfare
movements
 GROUPS NOT INCLUDED IN THE
LIST OF WORLD RELIGIONS
These group are religions; but are not included in the list
because:
they are a branch of a broader religion;
Lack appreciable communities of adherents outside their
home country;
they are too small;
Not considered non-religious ethnic, cultural, secular, non-
revealed systems, syncretistic, primal indigenous, diasporic
religious or tribal religionists.

These groups are:

Yoruba
Santeria
Vodoun and Shango of African diasporic religions
Shamans of Siberia
Lukumi and Candomble in Brazil and Cuba etc.
 PERSISTENCE OF RELIGION
There are religions that teaches beliefs that conflict with
those of other faiths, beliefs.

Religious beliefs are a major, integral component of how

people view themselves.
People believe that their religion links them directly in God
and/or other deities.
Religion permeates all aspects of ones life.
Teaches rewards beyond ones ability to imagine which are
associated with salvation, horrendous eternal punishments for
the unsaved, and the mechanisms by which people become
saved.
Often the source of ones moral codes.
Provides an understanding of the universe.
Religious community gives unquestioning belief in their own
faith groups teaching.
 RELATED SOCIAL
CONCEPTS ON RELIGION
Folk-Catholicism - Indigenous practices and old beliefs of the people which
are interwoven into the Catholic official practices.
Split-level Christianity Situation where there is a coexistence within the
same person of two or more thought-and-behavior systems which are inconsistent
with each other.
Faith healing Refers to the indigenous practice of faith healers who serve as
mediums for healing energy.
Occult From the Latin word occultus, which means mysterious practices
related to supernatural forces beyond the five senses.
Invisible or Private Religion The practice of many people who are
critical of organized religion, or who disclaim any religious affiliations to focus on
certain ultimate themes and private experiences on intimacy, work, or peace of
mind rather than on the issues central to tradition religion.
Fundamentalist Revival religious practice of the many people who
retrieve the powerful spirit of traditional religion but adapting to modern life.
Electronic Church the form of religious expression using religious radio and
television programs that reinforce traditional religious beliefs and ultimate themes
of private religions, such as autonomy, self-realization, and essence of family.