Jkuat Traffic 2015

TS4273 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Traffic Studies
Traffic Engineering Studies
Traffic studies may be grouped
into three main categories:
(1) Inventories,
(2) Administrative studies, and
(3) Dynamic studies.
(1) Inventories:
provide a list or graphic display of
existing information, such as:
street widths,
parking spaces,
transit routes,
traffic regulations.
(2) Administrative studies
use existing engineering records, available
in government agencies and departments.
include the results of surveys, which may
involve:
field measurements and/or
aerial photography.
(3) Dynamic traffic studies
involve the collection of data under operational
conditions and
include studies of:
speed,
traffic volume,
travel time and delay,
parking, and
crashes.
They are described in detail in this chapter.
Reasons To Collect Data
1. Managing the physical system (replaced,
repaired, anticipated schedule)
2. Investigating trends over time (forecast future

transportation needs)
3. Understanding the needs & choice of the

public & industry (nature of travel demand)
Reasons To Collect Data [contd]
4. Calibrating basic relationships or parameters
(perception-reaction time, discharge headways
at a signalized intersection, headway &
spacing relationship)
5. Assessing the effectiveness of improvements

(before & after study)
Reasons To Collect Data [contd]
6. Assessing potential impacts (traffic impact
assessment)
7. Evaluating facility or system performance

(periodically studies to determine quantity and
quality of accessibility and/or mobility service
to the public)
Type Of Studies
1. Volume Studies (the most basic traffic studies)
2. Speed Studies (safety concern)
3. Travel-time Studies (measure quality of

service)
4. Delay Studies (parts of travel time that user

find particularly annoying)
Type Of Studies
5. Density Studies (rarely direct measured)
6. Accident Studies (accident characteristics,

causal factor, specific location)
7. Parking Studies (inventories or parking supply,

parking accumulations
8. Good Movement & Transit Studies (truck

loading facilities & transit systems)
Type Of Studies
9. Pedestrian Studies (crosswalks at
signalized/un-signalized locations)
10. Calibration Studies
11. Observance Studies (effectiveness of various

traffic controls)
SPEED
Time Mean Speed is the arithmetic mean
of the spot speeds, the Space Mean
Speed is their harmonic mean.
Time Mean Speed is always greater than
space mean speed except in the situation
where all vehicles travel at the same
speed.
SPEED
Space Mean Speed
L nL
vs n
n
ti

i 1 n
t
i 1
i
vs = average travel speed or space mean speed (kph)

L = length of the highway segment (km)
ti = travel time of the ith vehicle to cross the section
(hours)
n = number of travel times observed
SPEED
Space Mean Speed
Segment Length 1km
Travel Time:
Vehicle A 45 seconds 0,0125 hr/km 80 kph
Vehicle B 60 seconds 0,0166 hr/km 60 kph
Vehicle C 72 seconds 0,0200 hr/km 50 kph
What is the average travel speed of these
three vehicles?
SPEED
Space Mean Speed
Average Travel Time
[0,0125 + 0,0166 + 0,0200] / 3 = 0,016389hr/km
Average Travel Speed
1 / 0,016389 = 61,01695 61 kph
SPEED
Time Mean Speed
n
v i
vt i 1
n
vs = time mean speed (kph)
vi = spot speed (kph)
n = number of travel times observed
SPEED
Time Mean Speed
Three vehicles pass a kilometer post at 80, 60
and 50 kph, what is the time mean speed of the
three vehicles?
[80 + 60 + 50] / 3 = 63,33 kph
Approximate Relationship
Between SMS & TMS (wardrop, 1952)
s
2
vt vs 2
s [ (vi vs ) ] / n
2
vs
t
2
vs vt 2
t [ (vi vt ) ] / n
2
vt
Between SMS & TMS (wardrop, 1952)
s 2
vt vs 2
s [ (vi vs ) ] / n
2
vs
160.92
2
s 160.92 vt 61.02 63.65
61.02
Between SMS & TMS
Between SMS & TMS
Spot Speed Studies
Speed characteristics from a spot speed study

may be used to:
Establish parameters for traffic operation and control,
such as speed zones, speed limit (85th percentile
speed is commonly used as the speed limit on a
road), and passing restriction.
Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices,
such as variable message signs at work zones.
Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs
such as the use of drone radar and the use of
differential speed limits for passenger cars and trucks.
Spot Speed Studies
Speed characteristics from a spot speed study

may be used to:
Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway
geometric characteristics such as radii of horizontal
curves and lengths of vertical curves.
Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety
through the analysis of crash data for different speed
characteristics.
Determine speed trends.
Determine whether complaints about speeding are
valid.
Study Locations
Consistent with study purpose
Not where vehicles are accelerating or
decelerating
Data collectors must not influence vehicle
speeds
Factors that influence speeds
Physical conditions
Environment
Heavy traffic
Enforcement activity
Collection Of Spot Speeds
Usually cannot collect all vehicles
Random sample
Systematic Errors and Solutions
Error looking for fastest vehicle
Solution Sample every nth vehicle
Error too many heavy vehicle measurements
Solution same as above sample every n th
vehicle
Error Inclusion of vehicle following platoon
leader
Solution Dont include vehicles following too
closely (200 if < 40 mph, and 350 otherwise)
Selecting the Sample
Random but representative
At least 100 vehicles per lane
Free-flowing vehicles only
Common sampling errors
Always selecting platoon leader
Too many trucks
High proportion of speeders
Other events
4.1.2 Time of Day and Duration of
Spot Speed Studies
depends on the purpose of the study.
recommended when traffic is free-flowing,
during off-peak hours.
typically:
the duration is at least 1 hour and
the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
4.1.4 Methods for Conducting Spot
Speed Studies
manual and automatic
manual method is seldom used
automatic devices
1. road detectors
2. radar-based
3. the principles of electronics.
Road Detectors
pneumatic road tubes & induction loops
collect data on speeds & volume at the
same time
Advantage:
Human errors are considerably reduced
Disadvantages:
expensive
may, affect driver behavior,
Pneumatic road tubes
laid across the lane in which data are to
be collected.
When moving vehicle passes over, an air
impulse is transmitted to the counter.
two tubes are placed across the lane, 2 m
apart.
An impulse is recorded when the front
wheels of a moving vehicle pass over the
first tube;
a second impulse is recorded when the
front wheels pass over the second tube.
The time elapsed between the two
impulses and the distance between the
tubes are used to compute the speed of
the vehicle.
Methods of Conducting
Spot Speed Studies
Road Detectors
Road Tubes for Collection of Spot Speed
Recorder
Spot Speed Studies
Road Detectors
Inductive loop
inductive loop
a rectangular wire loop buried under the
roadway surface.
It operates on the principle that a
disturbance in the electrical field is created
when a motor vehicle passes across it.
The IL (Inductive Loop)
The IL (Inductive Loop)
How it works
When a vehicle reaches the loop, the
metal of the vehicle disturbs the magnetic
field over the loop
This disturbance causes the loop
inductance to change
Yeah but???
The size of the loop, shape of the loop, number
of turns in the loop coil, and the length of the
lead-in wire all combine to form a specific circuit
The current passing through the loop generates
an electromagnetic field. When a vehicle passes
through the field, it acts as a conductor,
changing the inductance of the loop.
The sensor detects this change and notifies the
traffic-signal controller of its finding.
Today
New software-based detector designs utilize the latest
available state of the art microprocessor technology.
An area of significant importance, which benefits from
the new microprocessor technology, is in accurately
gathering and processing inductive loop signature
information.
Each vehicle having a different shape, which passes
over the inductive loop embedded in the pavement,
produces a different signature. The inductive loop
signature can provide valuable information about
different shaped vehicles passing over the loops. This
information can be utilized by traffic control systems to
increase the responsiveness of those systems.
Radar Gun Spot Speed Study
North
Main Street
Target Vehicle
Observer
Tree used to conceal With Radar
observer
Spot Speed Studies
Doppler-Principle Meters
Doppler Radar
The Doppler Effect
Doppler Radar relies
on the Doppler Effect,
a familiar
phenomenon that you
experience whenever
you hear an
ambulances siren
going past you.
This diagram shows
the sound wave
generated from a
stationary ambulance.
The frequency of
sound is the ratio of
the speed of the
sound wave to its
wavelength.
Doppler Radar
The Doppler Effect
But the situation
changes when the
ambulance starts to
move. Seen from
above the sound
wave is compressed
when the ambulance
approaches. The
sound wave expands
when the ambulance
moves away from
you.
For a brief video on
the Doppler Effect,
click here.
Doppler Radar
The Doppler Effect
As the ambulance
approaches, the
compressed
wavelength creates a
higher frequency,
based on the speed of
the ambulance.
Doppler Radar
The Doppler Effect
As the ambulance
moves away, the
expanded wavelength
creates a lower
frequency, also based
on the speed of the
ambulance.
Doppler Radar
The Doppler Effect
The same effect
applies with police
radar guns that
measure a moving
cars speed.
The radar gun sends
out a radio wave
signal that will bounce
off the moving car.
Doppler Radar
The Doppler Effect
As the radio wave
bounces off the car,
the reflected wave
shows either a higher
or lower frequency,
depending on the
what direction the car
is moving relative to
the radar gun.
The radar gun
measures the
reflected waves
frequency to
determine the speed
of the car.
Spot Speed Studies
Electronic-Principle Detectors
BHL Camera System (1/2)
4.5 Environmental
Firewire
enclosure
camera
Video
server
Fiber optics repeater
Berkeley Highway Lab (BHL)

Vehicle Tracking Application (1/2)
...
Snapshots from BHL Cameras
West Bound (locally South Bound) cameras in sequence, from West-most to closest to PPP
East Bound (locally North Bound) cameras in sequence, from closest to PPP to East-most
Berkeley Highway Lab (BHL)

Radar-Based Traffic Sensors
Electronic-Principle Detectors
traffic characteristics, such as speed,
volume, queues, and headways are
computed.
Using video image processing
4.1.5 Presentation and Analysis of
Spot Speed Data
Statistical methods
Analyzing data
frequency histogram
cumulative frequency distribution curve
Example 4.2 Determining Speed
Characteristics from a Set of Speed
Data.
Table 4.2 shows the data collected on a rural
highway in Virginia during a speed study.
Develop the frequency histogram and the
frequency distribution of the data and
determine:
1. The arithmetic mean speed
2. The standard deviation
3. The median speed
4. The pace
5. The mode or modal speed
6. The 85th-percentile speed
Solution:
The speeds range from 34.8 to 65.0 km/h,
giving a speed range of 30.2.
For eight classes, the range per class is 3.75
km/h;
for 20 classes, the range per class is 1.51 km/h.
It is convenient to choose a range of 2 km/h per
class which will give 16 classes.
A frequency distribution table can then be
prepared, as shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.2 Speed Data Obtained on a Rural Highway

Figure 4.4 Histogram of Observed Vehicles' Speeds

Table 4.3 Frequency Distribution Table for Set of Speed Data

Figure 4.5 Frequency Distribution

Figure 4.6 Cumulative Distribution

The median speed 49 km/h,
the 50th-percentile speed.
85th-percentile speed is 54 km/h
VOLUME, DEMAND AND CAPACITY
Volume, number of vehicles (persons) passing a

point during a specified time period which is
usually one hour.
Demand, number of vehicles (persons) that desire

to travel past a point during a specified period also
usually one hour.
Capacity, maximum rate at which vehicle can

traverse a point or short segment during a
specified time period
Theoretically, actual volume can never be

observed at levels higher than the true capacity
of the section.
Capacity = 4.000 vph
Demand = 3.800 vph
Volume = 3.800 vph

Queue Demand = 7.400 vph
Volume = 6.000 vph

Demand = 3.600 vph
Volume = 3.600 vph
Volume Studies
Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect

data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians
that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified time period.
This time period varies from as little as 15 min to
as much as a year, depending on the anticipated
use of the data.
The data collected may also be put into
subclasses which may include directional
movement, occupancy rate, vehicle classification,
and pedestrian age.
Volume Studies
Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when

certain volume characteristics are needed, some
of which follow:
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
Vehicle Classification (VC)
Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)
Volume and Rate of Flow
Traffic volume is defined as the number of
vehicles that pass a point on a highway, or a
given lane or direction of a highway, during a
specified time interval.
Daily Volumes
Daily volumes are used to establish trends over
time and for planning purposes. Daily volumes
generally are not differentiated by direction or
lane but are totals for an entire facility at the
specified location.
Volume and Rate of Flow
There are four daily volume parameters that are
widely used in traffic engineering:
- Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
- Annual Average Weekday Traffic (AAWT)
- Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
- Average Weekday Traffic (AWT)
All of these volumes are stated in terms of

vehicles per day (vpd).
Daily Volumes
- Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): is the average 24-
hour traffic volume at a given location over a full 365-day
year that is the total number of vehicles passing the
site in a year divided by 365.
- Annual Average Weekday Traffic (AAWT): is the average

24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays over a full
year. AAWT is computed by dividing the total weekday
traffic volume for the year by 260. This volume is of
considerable interest where weekend traffic is light, so
that averaging higher weekday volumes over 365 days
would mask the impact of weekday traffic.
Daily Volumes (contd.)
- Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is an average 24-hour traffic
volume at a given location for some period of time less
than a year. While an AADT is for a full year, an ADT
may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a
week, or as little as two day. an ADT is a valid number
only for the period over which it was measure.
- Average Weekday Traffic (AWT): is an average 24-hour

traffic volume occurring on weekdays for some period of
time less than one year, such as for a month or a
season. The relationship between AAWT and AWT is
analogous to that between AADT and ADT.
Daily Volumes (contd.)
AADT and AAWT are used for several transportation analyses:
Computation of accident rates in terms of 100 million
vehicles miles
Establishment of traffic volume trends
Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
Development of improvement and maintenance programs
- ADT and AWT are used for several transportation analyses:

- Measurement of current demand
- Evaluation of existing traffic flow
Illustration of Daily Volume Parameters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of
Total Days in Total Monthly Total Weekday
Month Weekdays In AWT [5/2] ADT [4/3]
Month (days) Volume (vehs) Volume (vehs)
Month (days)
Jan 22 31 425,000 208,000 9,455 13,710
Feb 20 28 410,000 220,000 11,000 14,643
Mar 22 31 385,000 185,000 8,409 12,419
Apr 22 30 400,000 200,000 9,091 13,333
May 21 31 450,000 215,000 10,238 14,516
Jun 22 30 500,000 230,000 10,455 16,667
Jul 23 31 580,000 260,000 11,304 18,710
Aug 21 31 570,000 260,000 12,381 18,387
Sep 22 30 490,000 205,000 9,318 16,333
Oct 22 31 420,000 190,000 8,636 13,548
Nov 21 30 415,000 200,000 9,524 13,833
Dec 22 31 400,000 210,000 9,545 12,903
Total 260 365 5,445,000 2,583,000
AADT = 5,445,000 / 365 = 14,918 veh/day

AAWT = 2,583,000 / 260 = 9,935 veh/day
Hourly Volumes
Daily volumes, while useful for planning
purposes, cannot be used alone for design or
operational analysis purposes.
Volume varies considerably over the 24 hours of

the day, with periods of maximum flow
occurring during the morning and evening
commuter rush hours.
Hourly Volumes
The single hour of the day that has the highest
hourly volume is referred to as the peak hour.
The traffic volume within this hour is of greatest

interest to traffic engineers for design and
operational analysis usage.
The peak-hour volume is generally stated as a

directional volume (each direction of flow is
counted separately).
Hourly Volumes (contd.)
Highways must be designed to adequately serve the
peak-hour traffic volume in the peak direction of flow.
Most operational analysis must address conditions
existing during periods of peak traffic volume.
Peak-hour volumes are sometimes estimated from

projections of the AADT. It is referred to as the
directional design hour volume (DDHV)
DDHV = AADT * K * D
Where:
K proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour
D proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction of
flow
Used for several transportation analyses:

Functional classification of roads
Design of geometric characteristics of highways (number
of lanes)
Capacity analysis
Development of programs related to traffic operations
Development of parking regulations
For example a rural highway has a 20 year
forecast of AADT of 30.000 vpd. What range of
directional design hour volumes might be expected
for this situation?
DDHVLOW = 30.000 * 0,15 * 0,65 = 2.925 vph
DDHVHIGH = 30.000 * 0,25 * 0,80 = 6.000 vph
The expected range in DDHV is quite large under

these criteria. Thus determining appropriate values
of K and D is critical in making such a forecast.
Sub Hourly
Volumes (contd)
Sub Hourly Volumes (contd)
Volume observed for period of less than one hour
are generally expressed as equivalent hourly rates
of flow (q). rate of flow q = number of vehicles during observation veh/h
observation time
For most practical purposes, 15 minutes is

considered to be the minimum period of time over
which traffic conditions are statistically stable.
In recent years, however, use of five-minute rates of

flow has increased, and there is some thought that
these might be sufficiently stable for use in design
and analysis.
Sub Hourly Volumes (contd)
PHF (Peak Hour Factor): defines the relationship
between the hourly volume and the maximum rate
of flow within the hour.
PHF = Hourly volume / maximum rate of flow
For standard 15-minute analysis period, this

become:
PHF = Hourly volume /
(4 * maximum 15-minute volume within the hour)
Sub hourly Volumes (contd.)
Peak-Hour Factor (PHF): is the ratio of the volume
occurring during the peak hour to a maximum rate of flow
during a given time period within the peak hour
hourly volume
PHF =
maximum rate of flow
For standard 15-minute analysis period, this become:

HV HV
PHF =
(60/15) V 4V
15 15
Where,
HV Hourly Volume
V15 Maximum 15 minute volume within the hour
Sub Hourly Volumes (contd.)
Example of volumes and rate of flow
Time Volume Rate of flow
interval (vehicles) (vehicles/h)
5:00-5:15 PM 950 950 * 4 = 3.800
5:15-5:30 PM 1.150 1.150 * 4 = 4.600
5:30-5:45 PM 1.250 1.250 * 4 = 5.000
5:45-6:00 PM 1.000 1.000 * 4 = 4.000
For the hour
5:00-6:00 PM 4.350 (veh/h)
A facility may have capacity adequate to serve the peak-hour

demand, but short-term peaks of flow within the peak hour
may exceed capacity, thereby creating a breakdown.
Sub hourly Volumes (contd.)
Example of PHF:
HV= 4350 vehicles
V15 = 1250 vehicles
HV
PHF =
4V
15
4350
PHF == 0.87
4 1250
NOTE:
0.25 PHF 1.00, normal between 0.70 and 0.98
Lower PHF indicates a greater degree of variation in flow
during the peak-hour.
Volume Counts
Manual Method
Hand-held Traffic Data Collectors
http://www.jamartech.com/TMBs.html
Volume Counts
Automatic Method
Volume Counts
Automatic Method
Type of Volume Counts
Cordon Counts
When information is required on vehicle accumulation
within an area, such as the central business district
(CBD) of a city, particularly during a specific time, a
cordon count is undertaken.
The area for which the data are required is cordoned off
by an imaginary closed loop; the area enclosed within
this loop is defined as the cordon area.
Cordon Counts
Screen Line Counts

In screen line counts, the study area is divided into large
sections by running imaginary lines, known as screen
lines, across it. In some cases, natural and man-made
barriers, such as rivers or railway tracks, are used as
screen lines
Traffic counts are then taken at each point where a road
crosses the screen line.
It is usual for the screen lines to be designed or chosen
such that they are not crossed more than once by the
same street.
Screen Line Counts
Cordon and Screenline Counts
CBD
Cordon Lines
Screenline
Intersection Counts
Intersection counts are taken to determined vehicle
classification through movements and turning
movements at intersections.
These data are used mainly in determining phase
lengths and cycle times for signalized intersections, in
the design of channelization at intersections, and in the
general design of improvements to intersections.
Turning Movement Surveys
1
54 100
50
20
26
5
700 673 789
22
4 2
5
661 571 600
24
70
200 40
90
100
3
Pedestrian Volume Counts

Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations
such as subway stations, mid-blocks, and crosswalks.
The counts are usually taken at these locations when the
evaluation of existing or proposed pedestrian facilities is
to be undertaken.
Such facilities may include pedestrian overpass or
underpasses.
Periodic Volume Counts

In order to obtain certain traffic volume data, such as
AADT, it is necessary to obtain data continuously.
However, it is not feasible to collect continuous data on
all roads because of the cost involved.
Periodic Volume Counts

To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume
characteristics on an area-wide basis, different types of
periodic counts, with count durations ranging from 15
min to continuous, are conducted; the data from these
different periodic counts are used to determine values
that are the used to estimate annual traffic
characteristics.
The periodic counts usually conducted are continuous,
control, or coverage counts.
TYPICAL COUNTING PERIODS
24-hour 1 or more 24-hour periods

16-hour 6 am 10 pm (90-95% of daily
traffic)
12-hour 7 am 7 pm (about 75% of daily
traffic)
Peak-periods 7 am 9 am and 4 pm 6 pm
Weekend 6 pm Friday 6 am Monday
Example: Volume Study
Period Time Actual Counts Expanded Counts
(PM) (vehs) (x 5/4 = 1,25)
Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 1 Lane 2
1 5:00 24 30
2 5:05 36 45
3 5:10 28 35
4 5:15 39 49
5 5:20 30 38
6 5:25 47 59
7 5:30 36 45
8 5:35 50 63
9 5:40 34 43
10 5:45 48 60
11 5:50 40 50
12 5:55 46 58
Total 192 266 240 333
% in Lane 41.9% 58.1% 41.9% 58.1%
Example: Volume Study
Period Time Estimated Counts Estimated Flow Rates
(PM) (vehs) (vehs)
Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 1 Lane 2
1 5:00 30 43 360 516
2 5:05 33 45 390 540
3 5:10 35 47 420 564
4 5:15 36 49 435 588
5 5:20 38 54 450 648
6 5:25 41 59 495 708
7 5:30 45 61 540 732
8 5:35 44 63 525 756
9 5:40 43 61 510 732
10 5:45 46 60 555 720
11 5:50 50 59 600 708
12 5:55 56 58 672 696
Total 496 659 5952 7908
% in Lane 42.9% 57.1% 42.9% 57.1%
4.2.3 Traffic Volume Data
Presentation
Time-Based Distribution Charts:
see Figure 4.15
Daily
variations:
see Figure
4.15b
Figure 4.15 Traffic Volumes on an Urban Highway (A&B)

Hourly
variations
in traffic
volume:
Figure 4.15 Traffic Volumes on an Urban Highway (C)

Summary Tables:
PHV, Vehicle Classification (VC), and ADT.
See Table 4.4
Table 4.4 Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

Summary Tables:
PHV, Vehicle Classification (VC), and ADT.
See Table 4.4
Table 4.4 Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

Adjustment of Periodic Counts
Expansion Factors from Continuous
Count Stations.
Hourly expansion factors (HEFs) are
determined by the formula
Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are
computed as
Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are

computed as
Table 4.5 Hourly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road
Table 4.6 Daily Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road
Table 4.7 Monthly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road
4.3 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY
STUDIES
Travel time: time required to travel from one
point to another on a given route.
the locations, durations, and causes of
delays.
good indication of the level of service
identifying problem locations,
4.3.1 Applications of Travel Time and
Delay Data
efficiency of a route
locations with relatively high delays
causes for delays
before-and-after studies
relative efficiency of a route
travel times on specific links
economic studies
4.3.2 Definition of Terms Related to
Time and Delay Studies
1. Travel time: time taken by a vehicle to

traverse a given section of a highway.
2. Running time: time a vehicle is actually in
motion
4.3.2 Definition of Terms Related to Time and
Delay Studies
3. Delay time lost due to causes beyond the

control of the driver.
4. Operational delay: delay caused by the
impedance of other traffic.
(for example, parking or unparking
vehicles),
5. Stopped-time delay
6. Fixed delay: caused by control devices
such as traffic signals, regardless of the
traffic volume
7. Travel-time delay: difference between the
actual travel time and the travel time
obtained by assuming that a vehicle
traverses at an average speed equal to
that for an uncongested traffic flow
Applications of Travel Time and
Delay Data
The data obtained from travel time and delays
studies may be used in any one of the following
traffic engineering tasks:
Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect
to its ability to carry traffic.
Identification of locations with relatively high delays
and the causes for those delays.
Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate
the effectiveness of traffic operation improvements
Applications of Travel Time and
Delay Data
Determination of relative efficiency of a route by
developing sufficiency ratings or congestion indices
Determination of travel times on specific links for use
in trip assignment models
Compilation of travel time data that may be used in
trend studies to evaluate the changes in efficiency
and level of service with time.
Performance of economics studies in the evaluation
of traffic operation alternatives that reduce travel
times.
Benefits of Travel Time
& Delay Studies
It provides real-time data on the operations of
roadways.
It can be used to determine capacity deficiencies
which can be translated into future capital
improvement projects.
If data is collected yearly, historical data can be
assembled which can help determine
deteriorating capacity trends and therefore
potential future projects.
Benefits of Travel Time
& Delay Studies
It can be used to compare before and after
conditions for completed capacity improvement
projects.
It provides data to calibrate traffic studies done

within the County.
It can assist the Traffic Concurrency approval

process.
Methods for Conducting Travel Time
and Delay Studies
Methods requiring a test vehicle
Floating-car technique
Average-speed technique
Moving-vehicle technique
Methods not requiring a test vehicle
License-plate observations
Interviews
and Delay Studies
Floating-car technique
In this method, the test car is driven by an observer
along the test section so that the test car floats with
the traffic.
The driver of the test vehicle attempts to pass as
many vehicles as those that pass his test vehicle
The time taken to traverse the study section is
recorded.
This is repeated, and the average time is recorded as
the travel time.
and Delay Studies
Average-speed technique
This technique involves driving the test car along the
length of the test section at a speed that, in the
opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the
traffic stream.
The time required to traverse the test section is noted.
The test run us repeated for the minimum number of
times, and the average time is recorded as the travel
time.
and Delay Studies
In this technique, the observer makes a round trip on
a test section like:
X Y
Westbound
Eastbound
X Y
where it is assumed that the road runs east-west.

and Delay Studies
The observer starts collecting the relevant data at
section X-X, drives the car eastward to section Y-Y,
and the turns the vehicle around and drives westward
to section X-X again.
X Y
Westbound
Eastbound
X Y
and Delay Studies
The following data are collected as the test vehicle
makes the round trip:
The time it takes to travel east from X-X to Y-Y (Te), in
minutes.
X Y
Westbound
Eastbound
X Y
and Delay Studies
The time it takes to travel west from Y-Y to X-X (Tw),
in minutes.
The number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite
lane while the test car is traveling east (Ne).
X Y
Westbound
Eastbound
X Y
and Delay Studies
The number of vehicles that overtake the test car
while it is traveling west from Y-Y to X-X, that is,
traveling in the westbound direction (Ow).
X Y
Westbound
Eastbound
X Y
and Delay Studies
The number of vehicles that the test car passes while
it is traveling west from Y-Y to X-X, that is, traveling in
the westbound direction (Pw).
X Y
Westbound
Eastbound
X Y
and Delay Studies
The volume (Vw) in the westbound direction
can then be obtained from the expression
Vw
N e Ow Pw 60
Te Tw
and Delay Studies
Similarly, the average travel time Tw in the westbound
direction is obtained from:
Tw Tw Ow Pw

60 60 Vw
60 Ow Pw
Tw Tw
Vw
Data from Travel Time Study Using
the Moving-Vehicle Technique
No. of Vehicles No. of Vehicles No. of Vehicles
Run
Travel Time (min) Traveling in That Overtook Overtaken by Test
Direction/Number
Opposite Direction Test Vehicle Vehicle
Eastward
1 2.75 80 1 1
2 2.55 75 2 1
3 2.85 83 0 3
4 3.00 78 0 1
5 3.05 81 1 1
6 2.70 79 3 2
7 2.82 82 1 1
8 3.08 78 0 2
Average 2.85 79.5 1.0 1.5
Data from Travel Time Study Using
No. of Vehicles No. of Vehicles No. of Vehicles
Run
Travel Time (min) Traveling in That Overtook Overtaken by Test
Direction/Number
Opposite Direction Test Vehicle Vehicle
Westward
1 2.95 78 2 0
2 3.15 83 1 1
3 3.20 89 1 1
4 2.83 86 1 0
5 3.30 80 2 1
6 3.00 79 1 2
7 3.22 82 2 1
8 2.91 81 0 1
Average 3.07 82.25 1.25 0.875
Volume and Travel Time Study Using
Average number of vehicle traveling eastward
when test vehicle is traveling westward (Nw) =
82,25
Average number of vehicles that overtake test

vehicle while it is traveling westward (Ow) = 1,25
Average number of vehicles that overtake test

vehicle while it is traveling eastward (Oe) = 1,00
Average number of vehicle the test vehicles
passes while traveling westward (Pw) = 0,875
Average number of vehicle the test vehicles

passes while traveling eastward (Pe) = 1,5
Volume in the westbound direction:
Vw
N e Ow Pw 60
Te Tw
Vw
79,5 1,25 0,875 60
809,5 810veh / h
2,85 3,07
Volume in the eastbound direction:
Ve
N w Oe Pe 60
Te Tw
Ve
82,5 1,00 1,5 60
828,5 829veh / h
2,85 3,07
Average travel time in the westbound direction:
Tw 3,07
1,25 0,875
60 3,0 min
810
Average travel time in the eastbound direction:
Te 2,85
1,00 1,5
60 2,9 min
829
and Delay Studies
License-plate observations
The license-plate method requires that observers be
positioned at the beginning and end of the test
section.
Observers can be also positioned at other location if
elapsed times to those locations are required.
Each observer records the last three or four digits of
the license-plate of each car that passes, together
with the time at which the car passes.
and Delay Studies
Interview
The interviewing method is carried out by obtaining
information from people who drive on the study site
regarding their travel times, their experience of
delays, and so forth.
This method facilitates the collection of a large
amount of data in a relatively short time. However, it
requires the cooperation of the people contacted,
since the result depends entirely on the information
given by them.
Origin-Destination Studies
Common Application
Weaving
Freeway (toll plaza)
Major activity center
Origin-Destination Studies
Common Method
License Plate
Post Card
Roadside Interview
Home Interview
Origin-Destination Data
household characteristics
no. of persons who live there
nos. of cars
occupation of the head
income etc.
Location of the origin and destination of the trip
(where trips begin & end)
Time at trip started & ended (when trips begin &
end)
Mode & route of travel
Purpose of trip
4.4 PARKING STUDIES
Any vehicle will at one time be parked
short time or longer time, provision of
parking facilities is essential
need for parking spaces is usually very
great in areas of business, residential, or
commercial activities.
park-and-ride
Providing adequate parking space to
meet the demand for parking in the
Central Business District (CBD)
This problem usually confronts a city
traffic engineer.
solution is not simple, Parking studies
are used to determine the demand for
and the supply of parking facilities.
4.4.1 Types of Parking Facilities
On-Street Parking Facilities
also known as curb facilities. Parking bays
are provided alongside the curb on one or
both sides of the street.
unrestricted parking
unlimited and free
Restricted parking facilities
On-Street Parking Facilities
limited to specific times for a maximum
duration.
may or may not be free.
handicapped parking
bus stops
loading bays.
Off-Street Parking Facilities
privately or publicly owned;
surface lots and garages.
Self-parking garages
attendant-parking garages
4.4.2 Definitions of Parking Terms
1. A space-hour is a unit of parking that
defines the use of a single parking space
for a period of 1 hour.
2. Parking volume is the total number of
vehicles that park in a study area during
a specific length of time, usually a day.
3. Parking accumulation is the number of
parked vehicles in a study area at any
specified time.
4. parking load the number of space-hours used
during the specified period of time.
5. Parking duration length of time a vehicle is
parked at a parking indication of how
frequently a parking space becomes available.
6. Parking turnover rate of use of a
parking space.
Obtained by dividing the parking volume

for a specified period by the number of
parking spaces.
4.4.3 Methodology of Parking Studies
Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities
detailed listing of the location and all other
relevant characteristics of each legal parking
facility, private and public.
The study area includes both on- and off-
street facilities.
Type and number of parking spaces at each
parking facility
Times of operation and limit on duration of parking,
if any
Type of ownership (private or public)
Parking fees, method of collection
Restrictions
Other restrictions, loading and unloading zones,
bus stops, taxi ranks
Permanency
The inventory should be updated at regular
intervals of about four to five years.
4.4.3 Methodology of Parking Studies
Collection of Parking Data
Accumulation:
by checking the amount of parking during regular
intervals on different days of the week.
Carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis
used to determine hourly variations of parking
and peak periods of parking demand.
Collection of Parking Data
Turnover and Duration:
collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in
a given block.
recording the license plate of the vehicle parked
on each parking space in the sample at the ends
of fixed intervals during the study period.
The length of the fixed intervals depends on the
maximum permissible duration.
Turnover and Duration:
For example, if the maximum permissible
duration of parking at a curb face is 1 hour, a
suitable interval is every 20 minutes.
If the permissible duration is 2 hours, checking
every 30 minutes would be appropriate. Turnover
is then obtained from the equation
Parking Demand
by interviewing drivers at the various parking
facilities
Interview all drivers using the parking facilities on
a typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00
p.m.
Information include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose of
trip, (3) drivers destination after parking.
the location of the parking facility, times of arrival
and departure, vehicle type.
Parking Demand
Parking interviews also can be carried out using
the postcard technique,
about 30 to 50 percent of the cards distributed
are returned.

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TS4273 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

2. Investigating trends over time (forecast future

3. Understanding the needs & choice of the

5. Assessing the effectiveness of improvements

7. Evaluating facility or system performance

2. Speed Studies (safety concern)

3. Travel-time Studies (measure quality of

4. Delay Studies (parts of travel time that user

6. Accident Studies (accident characteristics,

7. Parking Studies (inventories or parking supply,

8. Good Movement & Transit Studies (truck

10. Calibration Studies

11. Observance Studies (effectiveness of various

vs = average travel speed or space mean speed (kph)

Speed characteristics from a spot speed study

Speed characteristics from a spot speed study

Fiber optics repeater

Berkeley Highway Lab (BHL)

Berkeley Highway Lab (BHL)

Table 4.2 Speed Data Obtained on a Rural Highway

Figure 4.4 Histogram of Observed Vehicles' Speeds

Table 4.3 Frequency Distribution Table for Set of Speed Data

Figure 4.5 Frequency Distribution

Figure 4.6 Cumulative Distribution

Volume, number of vehicles (persons) passing a

Demand, number of vehicles (persons) that desire

Capacity, maximum rate at which vehicle can

Theoretically, actual volume can never be

Capacity = 6.000 vph

Capacity = 4.000 vph

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect

Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when

All of these volumes are stated in terms of

- Annual Average Weekday Traffic (AAWT): is the average

- Average Weekday Traffic (AWT): is an average 24-hour

- ADT and AWT are used for several transportation analyses:

AADT = 5,445,000 / 365 = 14,918 veh/day

Volume varies considerably over the 24 hours of

The traffic volume within this hour is of greatest

The peak-hour volume is generally stated as a

Peak-hour volumes are sometimes estimated from

Used for several transportation analyses:

The expected range in DDHV is quite large under

For most practical purposes, 15 minutes is

In recent years, however, use of five-minute rates of

For standard 15-minute analysis period, this

For standard 15-minute analysis period, this become:

A facility may have capacity adequate to serve the peak-hour

Screen Line Counts

Pedestrian Volume Counts

Periodic Volume Counts

Periodic Volume Counts

24-hour 1 or more 24-hour periods

Figure 4.15 Traffic Volumes on an Urban Highway (A&B)

Figure 4.15 Traffic Volumes on an Urban Highway (C)

Table 4.4 Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

Table 4.4 Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are

1. Travel time: time taken by a vehicle to

3. Delay time lost due to causes beyond the

It provides data to calibrate traffic studies done

It can assist the Traffic Concurrency approval

where it is assumed that the road runs east-west.