Electrical Technology

(Licence A)
LO1. Explain and understand the production
methods of electrical energy

2
The principle behind generation of electrical energy
and the main features of the different generating
plants used.
Electromagnetic Induction:

The very person to note the interconnection between the flow of

an electric current and a magnetic field was a Dutch physicist
and chemist called Hans Christian Oersted who discovered, on
21st April 1820 that a magnetic was deflected from its north-
south orientation when a current flowed in a nearby conductor.
The reverse effect namely, the displacement of electric charge
(or electric current) by a magnetic field took some more years to
be discovered. The discovery eluded a number of researchers
but it was the English genius Michael Faraday who managed to
find the relationship. The fundamental principle required that,
for a current to be generated inside a conductor from a
magnetic field, there had to be relative motion between the
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
field and the conductor. The direction of the current flow is
v=HLNugJwBRow 3
determined by Flemings right hand rule.
Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of creating

current flow in a conductor by magnetism. This current flow can
be created in one of two
ways:
1. when the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic
field
2. when the conductor is moving through a stationary magnetic
field
The manner in which electrons flow in a conductor is the
opposite to that which produces the force. In order to create
current flow, we require movement in to get electricity out. The
components required to create (or generate) electricity are:
1. closed conductor https://www.youtube.com/watch?
2. magnetic field v=hajIIGHPeuU
Whenever
3. relative motion occurs between a magnetic field and
relative movement.
a conductor acting at right angles to the field, an emf is induced
or generated in the conductor. 4
Faradays law The magnitude of the induced emf is
dependent on the relative velocity with which the conductor
cuts the lines of magnetic flux.
At any given time, the instantaneous
magnitude
of the induced emf (e), depends on the
number of
turns (N) and the rate at which the flux
changes
in the coil.

This can be expressed for the instantaneous emf (e), given by

the relationship:

where N is the number of turns and is the rate of change of flux.

The minus sign indicates that the polarity of the generated emf
opposes the change. 5
In order to generate an emf, the conductor must cut the lines of
magnetic flux. If the conductor cuts the lines of flux at right
angles, then the maximum emf is generated; cutting them at
any other angle reduces this value until =0, at which point, the
lines of flux are not being cut at all and no emf is induced or
generated in the conductor. So the magnitude of the induced
emf is dependent on sin; therefore:

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A loop rotating within a magnetic field

Moving a conductor through a magnetic field is usually

achieved by attaching a coil to a shaft and driving this from a
suitable source of power for example, from an engine
gearbox. The loop, or coil, is made to rotate inside a
electromagnetic or permanent magnetic field, with opposite
poles (N and S) on either side of the loop.

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Brush and slip-ring arrangement

Making contact with the loop as it rotates inside the magnetic

field is achieved by a pair of carbon brushes and copper slip-
rings.
The brushes are spring-loaded and held against the rotating slip-
rings so that there is a permanent connection for current to flow
from the loop to the external load to which it is connected

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emf generated at various angles

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At that instant a where the angle is , at which the field is cut,
is 0, and since the sine of 0 is zero, the generated voltage (from
e = Blvsin) will be zero.
When the loop is rotated to a position B (which is 90 to the lines
of flux), the two conductors will effectively be moving at right
angles to the field. At that instant, the generated emf will take a
maximum value (since the sine of 90 is unity).
At 180 deg from the starting position, the generated emf will
reduce back to zero, since the conductors are moving along the
flux lines (but in the direction
opposite to that at 0, as shown in C).
At 270 deg, the conductors will be moving perpendicular to the
flux lines (but in the direction opposite to that at 90). At this
point (D), a maximum generated emf will be produced.
Note that the emf generated at this instant is the opposite
polarity to that which was generated at 90. The relative
direction of motion (between
the conductors and flux lines) has now been reversed.
Since e = Blvsin, the generated emf will take a sinusoidal form. 10
nusoidal voltage produced by a rotating loop

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onstruction of AC Generator (Alternator)

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Main parts of the alternator,
obviously, consists of stator and rotor. But, the unlike other
machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating
and the armature coil is stationary.

Stator:Unlike inDC machinestator of an alternator is not

meant to serve path for magnetic flux. Instead,the stator is
used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made
up of lamination of
steel alloys or magnetic
iron, to minimize the
eddy current losses.

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Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator /
alternator:
Salient and Cylindrical type

Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and
medium speed alternators.Construction of AC generatorof
salient pole type rotor is shown in the figure below. This type of
rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called salient
poles),
bolted on a magnetic
wheel. These poles are
also laminated to
Minimize the eddy
current losses.
Alternators featuring
This type of rotor are
large in diameters
and short in axial
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length.
Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high
speed alternators, especially in turbo alternators. This type of
rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots
along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these
slots.
The DC supply is given to the rotor winding through the slip
rings and brushes arrangement.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH
48EMgKE 15
DC generator
In contrast to the AC generator, in a DC generator the slip-rings
are replaced by a commutator shown in figure below. As shown,
the commutator is essentially a split ring which is also mounted
on but insulated from the rotating shaft. The brushes rub
against the commutator as shown above. The function of the
commutator is to convert the alternating current into a direct
current. This is done by the fact that when the rotating loop
passes through the vertical position and hence at the instant
that the current is about to change direction, the brushes make
contact with the other half of the split ring thereby keeping the
direction of the current unchanged. Note that a DC generator is
often referred to as a dynamo.

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Commutator arrangement

d.c.-generated output

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Improved d.c. generator construction

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In practical generators, a coil comprising a large number of turns
of copper wire replaces the single-turn rotating loop. This
arrangement effectively increases the total length of the
conductor within the magnetic field and, as a result, also
increases the generated output voltage. The output voltage also
depends on the density of the magnetic flux through which the
current-carrying conductor passes; the denser the field, the
greater the output voltage will be.

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Power generating plants
A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an
industrial location that is utilized for the generation and
distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order
of several 100 Mega-watts. These are generally located at the
sub-urban regions or several kilometres away from the cities or
the load centres, because of its requisites like huge land and
water demand, along with several operating constraints like the
waste disposal etc. For this reason, a power generating station
has to not only take care of efficient generation but also the fact
that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire
distance. And thats why, the transformer switch yard to
At the centre
regulate of it, however,
transmission voltagenearly all poweran
also becomes generating stations
integral part of
has power
the an AC generator
plant. or an alternator, which is basically a
rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the
mechanical domain (rotating turbine) into electrical domain by
creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the
conductors. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator
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shaft varies widely, and is chiefly dependent on the type of fuel
Types of Power Generation
As mentioned above, depending on the type of fuel used, the
power generating stations as well as the types of power
generation are classified. Therefore the 3 major classifications
for power production in reasonably large scale are: Thermal
power generation.
Nuclear power generation.
Hydro-electric power generation.

Apart from these major types of power generations, we can

resort to small scale generation techniques as well, to serve the
discrete demands. These are often referred to as the non
conventional energy of power generation or renewables and
can be classified as:
Solar power generation. (making use of the available solar
energy)
Geo-thermal power generation. (energy available in the Earths
crust)
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Tidal power generation.
Renewable energy sources

The Advantages of Renewable Energy

One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is that

as it is renewable it is therefore sustainable and so will never
run out.
Renewable energy facilities generally require less
maintenance than traditional generators. Their fuel being
derived from natural and available resources reduces the costs
of operation.
Even more importantly, renewable energy produces little or no
waste products such as carbon dioxide or other chemical
pollutants, so has minimal impact on the environment.
Renewable energy projects can also bring economic benefits
to many regional areas, as most projects are located away from
large urban centres and suburbs of the capital cities. These
economic benefits may be from the increased use of local
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services as well as tourism.
The Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

One disadvantage with renewable energy is that it is difficult to

generate the quantities of electricity that are as large as
those produced by traditional fossil fuel generators. This may
mean that we need to reduce the amount of energy we use or
simply build more energy facilities. It also indicates that the best
solution to our energy problems may be to have a balance of
many different power sources.
Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the
reliability of supply. Renewable energy often relies on the
weather for its source of power. Hydro generators need rain to
fill dams to supply flowing water. Wind turbines need wind to
turn the blades, and solar collectors need clear skies and
sunshine to collect heat and make electricity. When these
resources are unavailable so is the capacity to make energy
from them. This can be unpredictable and inconsistent. The
current cost of renewable energy technology is also far in 23
excess of traditional fossil fuel generation. This is because it is a
Type of Where it is from Advantages Disadvantages
energy
Solar Energy from Potentially infinite Manufacture and
sunlight is captured energy supply. implementation
in solar panels and Single dwellings of solar panels
converted into can have own can be costly.
electricity. electricity supply.

Wind Wind turbines Can be found Manufacture and

(modern windmills) singularly, but implementation
turn wind energy usually many of wind farms can
into electricity. together in wind be costly.
farms. Some local
Potentially infinite people object to
energy supply. on-shore wind
farms, arguing
that it spoils the
countryside.

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Type of Where it is from Advantages Disadvantages
energy
Tidal The movement of Ideal for an Construction of
tides drives turbines. island such as the barrage is very
A tidal barrage (a UK. costly.
kind of dam) is built Potential to Only a few
across estuaries, generate a lot of estuaries are
forcing water through energy. suitable.
gaps. Tidal barrage Opposed by
In future underwater can double as a some
turbines may be bridge, and help environmental
possible out at sea prevent flooding. groups as having
and without dams. a negative
impact on
wildlife.
May reduce tidal
flow and impede
flow of sewage
out to sea.

Wave The movement of Ideal for an Construction can

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seawater in and out of island country. be costly.
Type of Where it is from Advantages Disadvantages
energy
Geothermal In volcanic Potentially infinite Can be expensive
regions it is energy supply. to set up and only
possible to use Used successfully works in areas of
the natural heat in some countries, volcanic activity.
of the earth. such as New Geothermal and
Cold water is Zealand and volcanic activity
pumped under Iceland. might calm down,
ground and leaving power
comes out as stations redundant.
steam. Dangerous
Steam can be elements found
used for heating underground must
or to power be disposed of
turbines creating carefully.
electricity.

Hydrological Energy Creates water Costly to build.

or harnessed from reserves as well as Can cause the
Hydroelectri the movement of energy supplies. flooding of
c Power water through surrounding
(HEP) rivers, lakes and communities and 26
Type of Where it is from Advantages Disadvantages
energy
Biomass Decaying plant or It is a cheap and When burned, it
animal waste. readily available gives off
An organic material, source of energy. atmospheric
which can be burned If replaced, pollutants,
to provide energy, biomass can be a including
eg heat, or long-term, greenhouse
electricity. sustainable gases.
An example of energy source. Biomass is only a
biomass energy is renewable
oilseed rape (the resource if crops
fields of yellow are replanted.
flowers you see in
the UK in summer),
which produces oil.
After treatment with
chemicals it can be
used as a fuel in
diesel engines.
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Type of energy Where it is fromAdvantages Disadvantages
Wood Obtained from A cheap and When burned it
felling trees, readily available gives off
burned to source of energy. atmospheric
generate heat If the trees are pollutants,
and light. replaced, wood including
burning can be a greenhouse
long-term, gases.
sustainable If trees are not
energy source replanted then
wood is a non-
renewable
resource.

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 The PN-junction as the basic building block of a solar
cell, and the photoelectric effect and the various
applications of solar panels
Semiconductors
Semiconductor materials are formed by changing the molecular
structure of an insulating material.
The crystalline structure of this base materials effectively
modified into one of two types of semiconductor:
1. with an increased number of electrons in the crystal structure
(N-type)
2. with a decreased number of electrons in the crystal structure
(P-type).

Typical semiconducting materials include silicon and

germanium. Diodes are created by joining P-type and N-type
semiconductors to form a junction. When the diode is connected
to an electrical circuit, it allows current to flow in one
direction (with the diode connected in forward bias), but not the
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Silicon and Germanium atoms

Solid state electronics arises from the unique properties of

silicon and germanium, each of which has four valence
electrons and which form crystal lattices in which
substituted atoms (dopants) can dramatically change the
electrical properties.

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Silicon Lattice

Silicon atoms form covalent bonds and can crystallize into a

regular lattice. The illustration below is a simplified sketch; the
actual crystal structure of silicon is a diamond lattice. This
crystal is called an intrinsic semiconductor and can conduct
a small amount of current.

The main point here is that a silicon atom has four electrons
which it can share in covalent bonds with its neighbours 33
The Doping of Semiconductors

The addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms in the

regular crystal lattice of silicon or germanium produces dramatic
changes in their electrical properties, producing n-type and p-
type semiconductors.
Pentavalent impurities Trivalent impurities

Impurity atoms with 5 valence Impurity atoms with 3

electrons produce n-type valence electrons produce
semiconductors by contributing p-type semiconductors by
extra electrons. producing a "hole" or
electron deficiency.

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P- and N- Type Semiconductors

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PN-junction

Just after the two layers are joined together both sides are
electrically neutral but the p-type material has an abundance of
free holes and the n-type an abundance of electrons. Since the
concentration of free charges is high on both side a diffusion
current is set up (as shown by the heavy arrows) with
reference to the diagram holes diffuse from left to right and
electrons diffuse from right to left. This diffusion current is,
however, only of a temporary nature, since
at the junction excess charges tend to
accumulate excess electrons on the p-side
of the junction and excess holes on the
n-type of the junction. The result is that an
electric field is created which opposes any
further flow of current.

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PN-junction

PN-junction showing excess charges within depletion layer and

electric field.

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Generation of current in a PV cell

However light striking the pn-junction may provide sufficient

energy to cause an electron in the depletion layer to acquire
enough energy to overcome the electric
field and pass across the depletion layer.
If the light energy is of sufficient magnitude
and duration that a continuous stream
of electrons are created a current flow
is generated if a circuit is created as
shown in figure below.

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It is important to point out that in a photovoltaic cell the
direction of current is opposite to that in a normal pn-junction
under the influence of an outside source of emf. The reason is
that in a photovoltaic cell the free electron is created within the
depletion layer and the electric field in the region points in the
opposite direction to that required if an external electric field is
applied (as in the case of a normal pn diode).

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41
The Photovoltaic Cell

There are two main types of silicon cells commonly sold; mono-
crystalline and polycrystalline. Mono-crystalline is slightly more
efficient and therefore is slightly more expensive. Both types
are very good.

The electrical terms shown above are important to understand.

They are used to describe performance at the PV cell, PV panel,
and PV system levels. The basic point however is to realize that
a PV cell acts very much like a battery when the sun is shining
on it. It has a fairly steady voltage (Vdc) but the current (Idc)
varies based on the intensity of the light. Voltage and current42
There are three dominating cell technologies:

o Mono-crystalline
As the name implies, these are cells that are grown from a
single crystal. The production methods are difficult and
expensive. These tend to be more efficient (more power in less
area) and more expensive.

o Multi-crystalline:
The production process allows multiple crystalline structures to
develop within the cell. It is easier to implement in a production
line. It is relatively cheaper than mono-crystalline at the
expense of lower efficiency.

o Thin-film:
Uses less silicon to develop the cell (hence the name thin film)
allowing for cheaper production costs (silicon is in high
demand). It tends to be less
expensive but has also lower efficiency. 43
The overall efficiency of the module will depend on the cell
efficiency and
placement within the module, and on the laminating materials
used.

The standard testing condition (STC), defined as:

o a total irradiance of 1000W/m2 and
o an ambient temperature of 25oC,
is used to define module ratings.

Typical module efficiencies range between 11% and 17% for

crystalline technologies at STC; most of the commercially
available modules are in the lower bound of this range. Thin-
film module efficiencies range between 6% and 12%.

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The Photovoltaic Panel

A PV panel is made up of a series of PV cells. The term series

means that the cells are connected in a way that allows the
voltage to increase at a desired operating level, much like
connecting multiple batteries. If you took apart a 9V battery
you would see they are made up of six small 1.5V batteries
wired in series. The same method is used for PV panels.

There are basically 4 classes of PV panels

Less than 12V used for powering or charging small devices
like radios and cell phones
12V panels/36 cells used mainly to charge 12V battery
systems (as above)
24V panels/72 cells used mainly to charge 24V battery
systems
Greater that 24V used for large battery systems and grid-tied
systems

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Modern PV panels use a standard connector called MC4. These
are a 4th generation connector that allows easy interconnects
between PV panels. There is a POSITIVE and a NEGATIVE
connector, and lead for each from each panel. Hobbyists can
buy MC4s and put them together themselves.

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A typical OFF-GRID Solar Photovoltaic system

Lets examine a case in which there are four 12V solar panels.
There are three main configurations possible:
12V system for 12V battery charging Place all four panels in
parallel
24V system for 24V battery charging Place two panels in
series and connect this set in parallel with an identical second
set of two panels in series
48V system for 48V battery charging Place all four panels in
series

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48
Charge Controller.
A charge controllers job is to charge the battery bank but not
allow it to become overcharged. Overcharging a battery bank
can result in damage to the battery bank as well as introduce a
safety hazard.

49
A typical ON-GRID Solar PV system

The goal of an ON-GRID PV system is to slow down, stop, or

reverse the utility meter by feeding all of the PV watts through a
device called a Grid Tie Inverter (GTI). There are mainly 2 types
of GTIs:
Centralized One unit that grid ties the power from an entire PV
array.
Distributed (micro-inverters) One unit per PV panel or pair of
The main advantage of the centralized system is the ability to
PV panels.
add panels more economically. The disadvantage is that if any
one panel is weak or shaded it will significantly reduce the
power sent to the grid.

The main advantage of the distributed/micro-inverter system is

that each panel or pair of panels are managed independently,
and are not impacted by shading that might be happening with
other panels. The disadvantage is that a single micro-inverter
can cost the same as a PV panel making the overall cost higher.
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51
Solar PV and inverters:
The output of a PV system is direct current. This may not
present a problem for small scale systems (like lighting systems
is gardens, porches, pedestrian crossings or to drive low-power
stand-alone equipment like remote water pumps for instance).
However PV systems are being used in homes and on large
commercial buildings and in these applications the loads almost
always require an ac source. Moreover the majority of the PV
systems are made to operate in synchronism with the main
supply so that any excess power generated can be fed back to
the grid. Under these circumstance, an inverter system is used
with the main PV system.

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53
An important drawback of grid connected PV systems is
islanding. Islanding occurs when a grid connected generator
continues to supply electricity to the grid even when the main
utility supply is not available. This can be dangerous to
personnel working on the utility distribution system as they can
have no knowledge that utility lines may still be powered.
Sometimes islanding is intentional incorporated in network in
which can a generator may be forced to island when the main
power is off in order to provide power to a locality or building.
However inverters intended to operate with PV systems are
required to have anti-islanding circuitry which cuts off the supply
when a situation of mains utility failure is detected.

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Applications of PV panels:

PV panels have found widespread use as alternative pollution

free-sources of energy. The applications can be the classified as
either small scale or large scale. Normally one would classify a
small scale installation where the peak power is a few hundred
watts. Such installations are usually installed to power
pedestrian crossing lights, speed warning signs and garden or
porch lighting. In these installations the solar panels are small,
measuring less than 1m2 in area, as compactness and the
aesthetic aspect are a primary concern.

On the other hand large scale installations, with peak power of

several kW or tens of kW, require substantial footprint areas.
The smaller ones are found on domestic and residential
premises and comprise 8 or 10 panels each measuring 1.5 m 2 in
area with a total peak power of 3 to 5kW. Large commercial or
industrial premises normally have substantial roof area which is
being utilised for PV installations. These installations may cover
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2
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The construction of a basic battery cell, its application
and proper disposal. Differentiate between primary
and secondary batteries.
Battery construction, application and disposal: All
batteries operate on the electro-chemical principle in which
compounds react to form other compounds and in the process a
stream of electrical charges is created which causes a current to
flow in a circuit formed outside the battery

61
The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy and to
convert this chemical energy through the chemical reaction into
electrical energy when needed.

A voltaic cell develops a potential difference when electrodes of

two different metals are immersed in an electrolyte. One
electrode accumulates a positive
charge. The potential difference is due to the difference in
charge between the two electrodes.

62
The term voltaic cell is defined as a combination of materials
used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. A voltaic
or chemical cell consists of two electrodes made of different
types of metals or metallic compounds placed in an electrolyte
solution.
An electrode is a metallic compound, or metal, which has an
abundance of electrons (negative electrode -anode) or an
abundance of positive charges (positive electrode - cathode).

An electrolyte is a solution which is capable of conducting an

electric current. The electrolyte of a cell may be a liquid or a
paste. If the electrolyte is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry
cell; if the electrolyte is a solution, it is called a wet cell.

A battery is a group of two or more connected voltaic cells.

63
Types of Batteries

Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are non-rechargeable and disposable. The
electrochemical reactions in these batteries are non-reversible.
The materials in the electrodes are completely utilized and
therefore cannot regenerate electricity. Primary batteries are
often used when long periods of storage are required, as they
have a much lower discharge rate than secondary batteries.
Use of primary batteries is exemplified by smoke detectors,
flashlights, and most remote controls.

Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteriesare rechargeable. These batteries
undergo electrochemical reactions that can be readily reversed.
The chemical reactions that occur in secondary batteries are
reversible because the components that react are not
completely used up. Rechargeable batteries need an external
electrical source to recharge them after they have expended 64
Construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=wwFrRymr4iE
Leclanch Cell
A electrolytic cell also known as a dry cell that uses a moist
paste rather than a liquid as an electrolyte. Dry cells with a zinc
cup for an anode, a carbon rod for a cathode, and a paste made
of powdered carbon, Ammonium chloride, Zinc Chloride, and
Manganese dioxide for an electrolyte.

65
Leclanch Cell
The Leclanch Cell (carbon-zinc) cell is one of the oldest and
most widely used types of dry cells. The carbon in the battery is
in the form of a rod in the centre of the cell which acts as the
positive terminal.
The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative electrode.
The electrolyte for this type of cell is a chemical paste-like
mixture which is housed between the carbon electrode and the
zinc case. The cell is then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in
the paste from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and
very inexpensive to produce. It has a good shelf life.
Disadvantages are high internal resistance and limitation of 1.5
volts.

66
Mercury Cell

Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped
like a button, while the other is a cylindrical cell that looks like a
regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about 1.35 volts.
These cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life.
The mercury cell has the advantage of maintaining a fairly
constant output under varying load conditions. For this reason,
they are used in products such as electric watches, hearing aids,
cameras, and test instruments.

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Lead Acid Cells secondary cell
The Lead Acid Cells consists of a series of cells, with each cell
containing a lead peroxide positive plate and a lead negative
plate immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid solution. This acid
solution is known as sulphuric electrolyte. The whole
arrangement is kept in a leak-proof casing. Each cell delivers
around 2 volts and when six cells are connected in series there
would be 12 V.

68
When a lead-acid battery is
discharged, electrolyte and
the active material on the
plates of the battery are
consumed to produce water
and lead sulphate.

When a lead-acid battery is

charged, electrical energy is
added to the battery, causing
the water and lead sulphate to
be consumed and produce
electrolyte and active material.
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Nickel Cadmium Cell - secondary cell
The nickel-cadmium cell is a secondary cell, and the electrolyte
is potassium hydroxide. The negative electrode is made of nickel
hydroxide, and the positive electrode is made of cadmium
hydroxide. The nominal voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.25
volts. The nickel-cadmium battery has the advantage of being a
dry cell that is a true storage battery with a reversible chemical
reaction (i.e., it can be recharged). The nickel-cadmium battery
is a rugged, dependable battery. It gives dependable service
under extreme conditions of temperature, shock, and vibration.
Due to its dependability, it is ideally suited for use in portable
communications equipment.

70
An ampere-hour is defined as a current of one ampere flowing
for one hour. If you multiply the current in amperes by the time
of flow in hours, the result is the total number of ampere-hours.
Ampere-hours are normally used to indicate the amount of
energy a battery can deliver.

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 Efficiency of a Lead
Acid Cell

output(discharge), Ah x 100%
ampere-hour efficiency =
input (charge), Ah

(around 85%, for good battery)

average discharge, Wh x 100%

watt-hour efficiency =
average charge, Wh

(around 70%, for good battery)

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eries, Parallel and Series-Parallel combination
When several cells are connected in series, the total voltage
output of the battery is equal to the sum of the individual cell
voltages. In the example of
the battery where four 1.5V cells provide a total of 6 volts. When
we connect cells in series, the positive terminal of one cell is
connected to the negative
terminal of the next cell. The current flow through a battery
connected in series is the same as for one cell.

Ri
=R
E =Ei1+R
+Ei2++REi3+R
+E +Ri5
i4+E
1 2 3 4 5
()
(V)

73
Cells connected in parallel, give the battery a greater current
capacity. When cells are connected in parallel, all the positive
terminals are connected together, and all the negative terminals
are connected together. The total voltage output of a battery
connected in parallel is the same as that of a single cell. Cells
connected in parallel have the same effect as increasing the size
of the electrodes and electrolyte in a single cell.
E=E1=E2=E3 Ri
(V) Ri =
Ri=Ri1=Ri2=Ri3 () 3
()

74
Serial parallel combination

The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages of each

series connected cells. In our case 4.5 V.

75
Applications: Batteries have diverse applications. The following
are some typical examples:
1. Main supplies: The demand for small portable as the main
source of energy has increased dramatically in recent years due
to the widespread use of portable equipment like digital
cameras, computers, cell phones, tablets, remote controls,
hand-held games, and MP3 players. The more conventional
equipment like clocks, radios and toys still provide a substantial
demand for small portable batteries.
The types most commonly used for these applications are zinc
carbon, alkaline, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), nickel cadmium
2. Uninterruptible
(NiCad), silver oxide Power Supply (UPS) or Back-up
and lithium.
supplies: A dedicated market exists for batteries used as back-
up (UPS) supplies. In this case the batteries provide power
whenever the main supply fails in order to provide a continuous
supply for essential services like cellular networks, telephone
network, computer networks and servers for hospitals, clinics,
banks but also for specific companies like gaming companies
which cannot afford to have their service interrupted as betting
76
3. Load-levelling: Load-levelling batteries are used in systems
where demand for electrical power may not always be very
regular and in this case batteries can provide the additional
capacity required to make up for the deficiency. This may be a
more efficient way of operation since the main source of power
need not be designed to cater for the occasional peak load.
Load-levelling batteries may also be found installed in
conjunction with wind farms. In this case the source of power
(and not the demand) is irregular since wind is a variable source
of energy. The batteries provide the necessary extra energy
during the lull periods in the available wind.

4. Starting batteries: Starting batteries are industries like the

automotive and marine for engine cranking and starting. The
main and least expensive type remains the flooded lead acid
battery. Variations exist like valve regulated lead acid (VRLA)
and absorbed glass mat (AGM). The gel type make use of a
special powder compound that absorbs the sulphuric acid and
hence makes it immobile for applications where leakage of the 77
Note that starting batteries and back-up have very different
characteristics. A starting battery is required to provide a burst
of power for, normally, a brief period of time since once the
engine starts the alternator provides all the power required and
also charges the battery itself. On the other hand back-up
batteries are normally required very infrequently but then they
are required to provide a steady supply of power for a relatively
long period.

78
Disposal:

Disposal of batteries poses a problem since a battery is made of

a number of substances some of which may be toxic and
therefore unless careful processes are adopted during their
disposal great harm can result to the environment and
irreversible ecological damage occurs. It must be pointed that
certain substances, notably mercury, have been phased out and
are no longer present in batteries. In particular dry batteries
commonly used in domestic gadgets (predominantly remote
controls and clocks) are quite safe to be disposed with other
trash. Nevertheless secondary batteries, which are also
extensively used like NiCad and NiMH, contain substances that
are toxic and therefore proper disposal is still an important
subject. In Malta recognised companies exist that are authorised
to collect and dispose of spent batteries.

79
LO2. Demonstrate an understanding of inherent
electrical and magnetic properties of
insulators, conductors and other magnetised
material

80
mic structure of conductors, insulators and semiconductors

81
 Conductors
Most metals are considered to be good conductors of electrical
current. Copper is just one of the more popular materials that is
used for conductors.

82
 Insulators
Insulators are materials that have just the opposite effect on the
flow of electrons. They do not let electrons flow very easily from
one atom to another. Insulators are materials whose atoms have
tightly bound electrons. These electrons are not free to roam
around and be shared by neighbouring atoms.

F - Fluorine, Cl Chlorine, Br - Bromine, I - Iodine

83
84
 The properties of conductors, the applications of
solid, liquid and gas conductors.
Main properties of conductors:

Resistivity and Conductivity: The resistance, R, of a metal is

directly proportional to the length, l the longer the length of a
conductor the higher is its resistance. Conversely, the
resistance, R, is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area, A:

In the above relationship the constant of proportionality is

denoted by ,is called the resistivity of the material and has
the units of -m. Therefore the equation now becomes:

85
The resistivity is a characteristic of the material and is a
measure of how resistive, to the flow of electric current, the
material under consideration is.
The inverse of resistivity of is called conductivity, denoted by
and has units of S/m. Physically conductivity is the characteristic
that measures the ability of a material to let current flow
through it.

Either resistivity or conductivity can be used to compare the

electrical characteristics of conductors: a conductor with a
resistivity which twice that of another conductor means that a
cube of material of the first conductor has a value of resistance
which is twice that of a cube, of the same dimensions, of the
second conductor.

86
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus: The rigidity of a material
is the property that measures its stiffness. A material is
described as being rigid if it can withstand deformation. It is
defined by the modulus of rigidity or the shear modulus given by
the following mathematical expression:

Where F is the force acting on the cross-sectional area A, x is

the extension on the length l as shown in figure above. 87
Tensile Strength: The tensile strength (also called Ultimate
Strength) is the maximum stress that a material can withstand
before fracturing. The stress is determined by the force divided
by the cross-sectional area of the material before breaking.
Both rigidity and tensile strength are very important mechanical
properties of conductors especially for conductors used in
cables which will be carried overhead or suspended across vast
distances since under these conditions the risk of the cable
breaking under its own load is a reality. However breaking is not
the only concern since a cable may stretch under tension and
consequently its cross-sectional area may diminish thereby
raising the resistance locally. This could create a local hot-spot
which may result in catastrophic failure at some point in time.

88
Applications of solid metal conductors:

Silver, with a resistivity of 1.59 x 10-8 -m, is the best

conductor of electricity but its one major disadvantage is its
cost. It does find uses, along with gold, in integrated circuits
where the actual quantities used are relatively very small, and
the superior qualities (especially low susceptibility to corrosion)
of both metals are a prime advantage. Copper comes in close
at second place since its resistivity is 1.70 x 10-8 -m while
aluminium has a resistivity which is relatively high at 2.82 x
10-8 -m.
Copper is by far the more widely used metal for electrical
conductors. It is relatively cheap and abundant, has good
mechanical properties and if properly treated will resist
corrosion. The one major advantage of aluminium over copper
is its relatively lower density (2712 kgm-3 compared to 8940
kgm-3) making much lighter in weight and hence more suitable
for overhead or suspended cables of large cross-sectional area.
One has to be very careful when joining together copper and89
aluminium cables as corrosion is a serious issue here due to the
Resistivity values of selected metallic materials compared to the
resistivities of various types of water, soils and rocks, which are
often are treated as conducting when discussing earthing
systems

90
Practical uses of copper and aluminium in the electrical
engineering sector: areas in which both metals can be used are
rare

91
Liquids (Electrolytes) as conductors:

Liquid conductors (Electrolytes): Electrolytes are liquid which

contains an ionic compound in solution. Since an ionic
compound consists of positively and negatively charges particles
(or ions) it can conduct electricity. Ions are charged particles
e.g. Na+ sodium ion, or Cl- chloride ion, and their movement
or flow constitutes an electric current, in other words the
electrolyte consists of a stream of moving charged particles.

chloride ion 92
93
Liquids that conduct must contain freely moving ions to carry
the current and complete the circuit. There are two ion currents
in the electrolyte flowing in opposite directions positive cations
e.g. sodium Na+ are attracted to the negative cathode
electrode, and negative anions e.g. chloride Cl- are attracted to
the positive anode electrode. No electrons flow in the solution,
but they do flow in metal wires or carbon (graphite) electrodes
of the external circuit.
The greater the concentration of the
electrolyte ions, the lower the
electrical resistance of the solution.
This is because there are more ions
present to carry the current e.g. if
the voltage (V, volts) is kept
constant, the current flowing (I,
amps) will steadily increase as the
concentration of the electrolyte is
increased.
94
The molten or dissolved materials are usually acids, alkalis or
salts and their electrical conduction is usually accompanied by
chemical changes e.g. decomposition. The chemical changes
occur at the electrodes which connect the electrolyte liquid
containing ions with the external d.c. electrical supply.

Electrolytes are used in the process of electrolysis which the

decomposition of the electrolyte when a current is passed
through it. Electrolysis is used in industry in a number of
processes:
Electroplating,
Separation (decomposition) of compounds into their constituent
elements,
Batteries operate on the electrolysis principle as well.

95
Some definitions regarding electrolysis

1. Electrolysis: It is a chemical process where a substance in

its molten state or in an aqueous solution is decomposed by the
passage of electric current.

2. Electrolyte: A compound that allows electric current to pass

through itself, when either in a molten state or in an aqueous
solution, is called an electrolyte. Solutions of sodium chloride,
copper sulphate, dilute sulphuric acid are examples of strong
electrolytes. Weak electrolytes are those compounds which are
poor conductors of electricity when they are in a molten state or
in an aqueous solution.

3. Non-electrolyte: A compound which does not allow electric

current to pass through itself in any state, molten or aqueous, is
called a non-electrolyte.

96
4. Electrodes: The strips of metals inserted in the electrolytes
for conduction of electricity are called electrodes. The metal
electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery is
called the anode (+). The metal electrode connected to the
negative terminal of the battery is called the cathode (-).

5. Electrolytic cell: The complete set-up for electrolysis is

called the electrolytic cell. This consists of the vessel containing
the electrolyte, anode, cathode, battery and wires. Electrolytic
cell is also known as a volt-ameter, since it generates voltage
(or current) at its two terminals.

97
To summarize the process of electrolysis, we can say the
following:
Electrolytes dissociate to form negatively charged anions and
positively charged cations.
The ions conduct electricity through the electrolyte.
Cations are attracted towards the negative electrode. They
take the excess electrons from the electrode and neutralize
themselves.
Anions are attracted towards the positive electrode. They give
up the excess electrons from the electrode and neutralize
themselves. The electrolyte dissociates and the constituent
elements of the salt are liberated at the electrodes.

98
Electroplating of metals

Electroplating is a process whereby a thin coating of desired

material is applied on a required material. This is mostly done on
stainless steel to prevent rusting, or on some decorative items,
so that they look attractive. On stainless steel, generally nickel-
chromium plating is done. On decorative items, such as spoons,
plates, jewellery items, silver, gold or other plating is done.
Electroplating is cheap and cost effective. It enhances the life of
the object and makes it look better in appearance.

99
The following method is adapted:

First the item to be electroplated is smoothened and cleaned

thoroughly. It should not have any oily or dirt marks on it.
An electrolyte is selected whose ions are required to be
deposited on the item. Direct current is preferred to
alternating current, as alternating current may result in non-
smooth deposit.
The item to be electroplated forms the anode or cathode of
the electrolytic cell. This is the drawback of the electroplating
process. The item has to be electrically conducting, or has to
be made electrically conducting.
For a smooth coating, the electrolytic process has to be
optimized for time, temperature and current in the cell

100
Figure above is a conventionally used electrolytic cell for
depositing silver. Let the item to be silver-plated be a spoon.
Electrolyte used is sodium silver cyanide solution. The cathode
is made out of the item on which the electro deposition is to be
done, in this case it is a spoon. Anode is made of a block of
silver.

The positively charged Ag + ions are attracted to the cathode (-)

and accept one electron and get deposited as a thin film over
the cathode material, in this case the spoon.

The silver atoms at anode loose electrons and enter into the
electrolyte as an ion. This ensures that the concentration of the
Ag in the solution remains constant. The electroplating is
complete when a desired thickness of the silver film is
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OdpvTr-
deposited. 7bYI

101
Gaseous conductors:

Historically discharge tubes were made containing gases at very

low pressures (10-2 or 10-3 atm). The tube, inside which the gas
in contained, contains an electrode at each of its two ends. The
two electrodes are normally heated (hot cathode) so that they
emit electrons by the thermionic effect. The liberated electrons
are accelerate from one electrode to the other and in the
process collide with the gas atoms. Such collisions are inelastic
and therefore energy is conveyed to the gas atoms. This
absorbed energy causes an electron in the outer orbits of the
atom to jump to a higher orbit (higher energy level). This,
however, is normally a unstable state of affairs for the atom and
the electron reverts back to its lower orbit (lower energy level) in
the process emitting the extra energy. This energy is normally
what constitutes the glow or light emitted by the gas. It is
important to point out that most the energy emitted by gas lies
in the UV region which is not visible.
102
103
The discharge tube explained above can be made to emit more
light in the visible region by having the inside of the tube coated
with a fluorescent material which absorbs the UV energy and re-
emits it as visible light.
Discharge and fluorescent tube exist in many forms but are
normally distinguished by the following main characteristics:
1. Hot or cold cathode the example explained above produces
the electrons of by thermionic emission but cold cathode
versions also exist in which electron emission, from the
electrodes, occurs directly without the use of heat. The cold
cathode type normally has longer lifetime than the hot version
type but requires a higher inter-electrode potential difference.
2. High or low pressure: The pressure of the gas (or vapour)
inside the tube can be either high or low.
3. Type of vapour or gas inside: Various types exist but the more
common are sodium, mercury, neon and argon.

104
The properties of insulators, describe the applications
of solid, liquid and gas insulators

Main properties of insulators:

Like conductor, insulators are characterised by their mechanical

properties. In this case the mechanical strength and rigidity
(which is defined the same way as for conductors) have to be
considered depending on the type of application.
Resistivity is another parameter that is also important in
insulators. In this case, since the objective of an insulator is to
isolate conductors, which are at a different potential, from each
other the resistivity values must be very high.

105
Maximum or Breakdown voltage: The maximum voltage that an
insulator can withstand is critical. An insulator is almost always
employed in situations in which an electric field is established
across it. The gradient of this electric field is directly correlated
to the potential difference across the insulator. This electric field
gradient causes the molecules inside the molecules to distort
and get polarised. This is shown in figure below which depicts
the setup of two plates X and Y which are connected to an
external source of voltage. The external source sets
up an electric field
inside the dielectric
(insulator) such that
the molecules of the
materials get
elongated in the
direction of the field.

106
It may be inferred that there is a limit to the amount of distortion
a dielectric molecule can withstand as a point will come when
the electric field is so strong that the molecules will be stripped
apart and at this point the dielectric breaks down and current
starts to flow. The magnitude of electric field required to cause
breakdown of the dielectric is the maximum (breakdown
voltage) and is a very important characteristic of an insulator.
The units of this breakdown voltage are Vm-1 or Vmm-1 and vary
greatly between different material: paper 50 kV mm -1, Mica
200kVmm-1temperature:
Operating , air 0.8 to 3kVmm -1
and glass
The operating 80 to 120kVmm
temperature of an .
-1

insulator is important as exceeding the specified temperature

can cause changes in the insulator which can affect various
other specifications especially the resistivity and breakdown
voltage normally there is a lowering of both with an increase in
temperature.

107
Comparison of water flow (a) with electric current (b)

The purpose of insulation around a conductor is much like that

of a pipe carrying water, and Ohms law of electricity can be
more easily understood by a comparison with water flow.
Pressure on water from a pump causes flow along the pipe (Fig.
a). If the pipe were to spring a leak, youd waste water and lose
some water pressure. With electricity, voltage is like the pump
pressure, causing electricity to flow along the copper wire (Fig.
b). As in a water pipe, there is some resistance to flow, but it is
much less along the wire than it is through the insulation. 108
What makes insulation to go bad:

Insulation is subject to many effects which can cause it to fail

mechanical damage, vibration, excessive heat or cold, dirt, oil,
corrosive vapours, moisture from processes, or just the humidity
on a muggy day. In various degrees, these enemies of insulation
are at work as time goes on combined with the electrical
stresses that exist. As pin holes or cracks develop, moisture and
foreign matter penetrate the surfaces of the insulation,
providing a low resistance path for leakage current.

109
How Insulation Resistance is Measured:

You have seen that good insulation has high resistance; poor
insulation, relatively low resistance. The actual resistance values
can be higher or lower, depending upon such factors as the
temperature or moisture content of the insulation (resistance
decreases in temperature or moisture). With a little record-
keeping and common sense, however, you can get a good
picture of the insulation condition from values that are only
relative. The Megger insulation tester is a small, portable
instrument that gives you a direct reading of insulation
resistance in ohms or mega-ohms. For good insulation, the
resistance usually reads in the mega-ohm range.
The Megger insulation tester is essentially a high-range
resistance meter (ohmmeter) with a built-in direct-current
generator. This meter is of special construction with both current
and voltage coils, enabling true ohms to be read directly,
independent of the actual voltage applied. This method is non-
destructive; that is, it does not cause deterioration of the 110
insulation.
111
112
Typical Megger test instrument hook-up to measure
insulation resistance

113
Effect of temperature on insulation resistance

The resistance of insulating materials decreases markedly with

an increase in temperature. If you want to make reliable
comparisons between readings, you should correct the readings
to a base temperature, such as 20C, or take all your readings
at approximately the same temperature (usually not difficult to
do).

One thumb rule is: For every 10C increase in temperature,

halve the resistance; or, for every 10C decrease, double
the resistance.
For example, a 2 M resistance at 20C reduces to 1/2 M at
40C.

Each type of insulating material will have a different degree of

resistance change with temperature. Factors have been
developed, however, to simplify the correction of resistance
values. 114
Temperature Correction Factors*

115
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Observe all rules for safety when taking equipment out of

service. Block out disconnect switches. Test for foreign or
induced voltages. Apply workmens grounds. Remember that
when working around high voltage equipment there is always a
possibility of voltages being induced in apparatus under test or
lines to which it is connected, because of proximity to energized
high voltage equipment. Therefore, rather than removing a
workmens ground in order to make a test, it is more advisable
to disconnect the apparatus, such as a transformer or circuit
breaker, from the exposed bus or line, leaving the latter
grounded. Use rubber gloves when connecting the test leads to
the apparatus and while operating the Megger instrument.
Apparatus Under Test Must Not Be Live!

116
Shock Hazard from Test Voltage

Observe the voltage rating of the Megger instrument and regard

it with appropriate caution. Large electrical equipment and
cables usually have sufficient capacitance to store up a
dangerous amount of energy from the test current. Make sure
this capacitance is discharged after the test and before handling
the test leads.

117
Explosion and Fire Hazard

So far as is known, there is no fire hazard in the normal use of a

Megger insulation tester. There is, however, a hazard when
testing equipment located in inflammable or explosive
atmospheres.
(1) When attaching the test leads to equipment in which the
capacitance has not been completely discharged
(2) During a test, arcing through or over faulty insulation
(3) Following a test when capacitance is discharged

Do not use the instrument in an

explosive atmosphere.

118
Applications of insulators:

Theres a multitude of materials that can be used as insulators.

The choice depends on a number of factors, like:
Resistivity, breakdown voltage, tensile strength and
operating temperature.
Rigidity or flexibility: a cable requires a flexible insulator
while a household socket required a rigid insulator.
Cost.
Availability and manufacturability.

119
PVC:
Polyvinylchloride or PVC is perhaps the most common insulating
material. Most wiring is insulated with PVC including house
wiring. Irradiated PVC has superior strength and resistance to
heat. PVC tapes and tubing are also quite common. Electrical
and electronic housings are commonly moulded from PVC.
CERAMIC:
Ceramics are used to fabricate insulators, components, and
circuit boards. The good electrical insulating properties are
complemented by the high thermal conductivity.

EPOXY/FIBERGLASS:
This laminate is quite common due to its superior strength and
excellent electrical properties even in humid environment. Most
modern circuit boards are made from a grade of
epoxy/fiberglass. (Grades include G10/FR4 and G11/FR5
extended temperature grade.)
120
NYLON:
Nylon has good resistance to abrasion, chemicals, and high
voltages and is often used to manufacture electro-mechanical
components. Nylon is extruded and cast and is filled with a
variety of other materials to improve weathering, impact
resistance, coefficient of friction, and stiffness. The drawback of
Nylon is that it is very susceptible to moisture absorption.

121
Cables and transmission lines:

Insulating material is generally used as a protective coating on

electrical conductor and cables. Cable cores which touch each
other should be separated and insulated by means of insulation
coating on each core, e.g. polyethylene, cross linked
polyethylene-XLPE, polyvinyl chloride-PVC, Teflon, silicone etc.
Hanging disk insulators (bushings) are used in high voltage
transmission bare cables where they are supported by electrical
poles. Bushings are made from glass, porcelain, or composite
polymer materials.

122
Electronics systems:

All electronic appliances and instruments widely contain PCB

(printed circuit boards) having different electronics components
on them. PCBs are manufactured of epoxy plastic and
fiberglass. All electronics components are fixed on the insulated
PCB board. InSCR(semiconductor rectifiers), transistors and
integrated circuits, the silicon material is used as a conductive
material and can be converted into insulators using a heat and
oxygen process.

123
Power systems:

Transformer oil is widely used as an insulator to prevent arcing

in transformers, stabilizers, circuit breakers, etc. The insulating
oil can withstand insulating properties up to a specified electrical
breakdown voltage. Vacuum, gas (sulphur hexafluoride), and
ceramic or glass wire are other methods of insulation in high
voltage systems. Small transformers, power generators, and
electrical motors contain insulation on the wire coils by the
means of polymer varnish. Fiberglass insulating tape is also used
as a winding coil separator.

124
Domestic portable appliances:

All hand held electrical appliances are insulated to prevent their

user from electrical shock hazard.
Class 1 insulation contains only basic insulation on the wire and
the metal body is earthed at the main grounding system. The
third pin on the power plug shall be for the grounding
connection.
Class 2 insulation denotes a device with "double insulation." All
internal electrical components shall be totally enclosed within
an insulated body which will prevent any shorting with
conductive parts.

125
Electrical cable insulating tape:

PVC tapes are widely used to insulate electrical wires and other
live conductive parts. It is made of vinyl as it stretches well and
provides effective and long-lasting insulation. Electrical tape for
class H insulation is made of fiberglass cloth.

126
Personal protective equipment:

PPE protects humans from the hazards of shock with electrical

circuits. PPE such as insulating head protection, eye and face
protection, and insulating gloves are necessary for protection
against all common electrical hazards. Insulated tools and
protective shields are must for an electrician's safe working.
Dielectric shoes (non-metallic safety footwear) or electrical
hazard footwear is made with non-conductive, electrical shock-
resistant soles and heels.

127
Electrical rubber mats:

Insulating mats for electrical purposes have a wide application

in various substations, power plants, etc. The mats are used for
floor covering below control panels to provide for the safety of
workman due to any possible leakage of current.

128
 The properties of magnetic materials and the
applications of electromagnetic materials.
Properties of Magnetic Materials:

Flux density vs Field strength (B-H) Curve: The properties of

magnetic materials are best explained by reference to the B-H
curve shown below:

129
Hysteresis: Referring to B-H hysteresis is term used to explain
the fact that if a magnetic material, which is not magnetised at
time zero, is exposed to an increasing magnetic field, it still
retains some magnetism even when the magnetic field is
reduced to zero. That is hysteresis is the term that describes the
blue curve. The actual shape differs from one magnetic material
Residual
to another.flux density and Retentivity: When the field
strength is brought down to zero the field density does not
diminish completely as some flux density still remains. The
magnitude of this flux density is a property of the material
being used. The term used to describe this is called retentivity.

Coercive force and Coercivity: In order to reduce the

residual flux density to zero it required to increase the field
strength in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the field
strength required to make the flux density disappear altogether
is called the coercive force and the property is referred to as
coercivity. The magnitude of the coercivity is also a property of
the magnetic material being used. 130
131
Soft magnetic materials -have small enclosed area of
hysteresis loop, high permeability, high saturation value, low
eddy current losses which is achieved by using laminated cores,
less residual magnetism. Soft magnetic materials are used for
the construction of cores for electrical machines, transformers,
electromagnets and reactors.

Hard Magnetic materials-have a gradually rising

magnetization curve with large hysteresis loop area and hence
large energy losses. They have high value of retentivity and
high value of coercivity and low permeability. To saturate the
hard magnetic materials, a high magnetizing force is required.
Hard magnetic materials have the property of storing
a considerable amount of magnetic
energy after magnetization and
retaining the same for a long time.
Due to this property they are used in
the manufacture of permanent
magnets. 132
Iron loss: The iron loss is the term that refers to the energy
loss inside a magnetic material due to:

Hysteresis: The hysteresis loop represents energy loss in the

material since if a piece of magnetic material is exposed to a
magnetic field which is cyclic (i.e. increases in one direction,
decreases to zero and then increases in the opposite direction,
and this cycle is repeated continuously) then energy is
absorbed by the material from the magnetic field due to the
hysteresis effect. This energy absorption manifests itself as
heat.

Eddy current: Another cause of iron loss is that due to the

eddy currents that are set up inside the magnetic material due
to the cyclic magnetic field. These eddy currents absorb energy
from the magnetic field since they generate heat within the
magnetic material (due to normal I2R loss).

133
 Core Losses in Transformer

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon

magnetic properties of the materials used to construct the core
of transformer and its design. So these losses in transformer
are fixed and do not depend upon the load current. So core
losses in transformer which is alternatively known as iron
loss in transformer can be considered as constant for all
range of load.

Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as:

as:
ddy current loss in transformer is denoted

Where,
Kh = Hysteresis
constant
Ke = Eddy current
constant 134
he applications of electromagnetic materials

Operation of a magnetic switch

135
Connection of a typical perimeter
alarm system

136
Read/write function on a magnetic surface

137
Basic concept of the magneto-optical disk

138
Basic solenoid structure

139
Basic solenoid operation

140
Basic structure of a single-pole-two
way relay

141
Basic structure of a reed relay

142
Forces on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field (motor action).

143
Basic speaker operation

144
The speaker converts audio signal voltages into sound
waves

145
The basic dArsonval meter movement

146
When the electromagnetic field interacts with the permanent
magnetic field, forces are exerted on the rotating coil assembly,
causing it to move clockwise and thus deflecting the pointer

147
Automotive Crankshaft Position Sensor

A crankshaft position sensor that produces a voltage when a

tab passes through the air gap of the magnet
148
149
150