Introductory Course For Mechanical Engineers

Introductory Course
for Mechanical
Engineers
Organized by KERA in association with

Induscan Petroleum Institute India
Day 1 17th September 2010

Venue- Emirates Techno Casting , Hamriya Free Zone
Introductory course for
Mechanical Engineers
CHAPTER 1
Construction Drawings

B1 GENERAL
Drawing is the language of Engineers. There are certain
basic ideas in engineering drawing followed by
international Engineering Community. Plan, elevation,
end view, cross- section etc. are the different
imaginary views used by engineers to draw any object.
In some situations it is not possible to draw all the

above specified views of an object in a single image
due to the bulky size. Accordingly the drafting method
is slightly modified and used in the construction fields

The following are some of the major systems of drawings
used in the oilfield and related industries.
Piping and Instrument Diagram. (P&ID)

Equipment drawing
Isometric drawing
Structural drawing
General arrangement drawing (GAD)

B.2 PIPING & INSTRUMENT DIAGRAM (P &ID)
It is a schematic representation of the complete process

in sequence, which includes the information regarding the
main process, the major equipment, the control details
and the major instrument (almost all) of the total
construction of oil production facility, chemical plant,
refinery etc. In P&ID, dimensions (length, width,
thickness etc), direction (North, east etc), elevation
(height), etc are not specified.

The P & ID is not drawn in proportion to any scale,
common identification systems used in P&ID are explained
below
B.2.1. LINE NUMBERING

Each piping system indicated in P &ID is identified with a
line number. An experienced engineer can read out the
complete information about the purpose of the system
from the line number.

One example for a line number listed below will clarify
the same.
Explanation for each parts of line numbering is made as

16 PL B2 3404.

B.2.2 Line size
In the above example the first two digits (16) indicates
the diameter of the pipe. It can be a single digit also if
the line size is small (Ex. 2, 3, 5, etc).
B.2.3 Process
The second part normally letters shows the process of the
line or fluid content of the line. In the above example it is
PL which is an abbreviation for Process Hydrocarbon
Liquid. More examples for such processes normally used
in P&ID are listed below
PL - Process hydrocarbon Liquid.
PG - Process hydrocarbon Gas.

DO -Open Drain
DC- Closed Drain
AI - Instrument Air
AU- Utility Air
WO-Oily Water
WD-Drinking Water

B.2.4 Material Class
The third part indicates the material classification.

A 150#
B 300#
C 600# etc
Number followed the letter indicates manufacturing detail
of the pipe such as seamless pipes, welded pipes, chemical
properties, mechanical properties, heat treatment,
nondestructive test etc.

B.2.5 Line sequence
The fourth group of digits indicate the serial number of the

pipeline generally a four digital number starting from
1000 is continuously given for each line.
B.2.6. Revision in drawing and Cloud Indication
Some part of the P&ID a cloud like indication is marked.

This indicates that some change is made in drawing
(revised). The engineer can correlate this area with the
previous revision so that the changes can be easily found.

B.3 EQUIPMENT DRAWING
B.3.1 General
Equipment is the basic process item in any oilfield,
refineries or chemical plant. Rotary equipment means
equipment has a rotating part. Eg. Pump, Generator
Static equipment is stationery and has no rotating part. Eg.

Boiler, Separator, Heat exchanger Static equipment is either
a pressure vessel or a non pressure vessel. Pressure vessel
means any static equipment contains fluid with pressure
above atmospheric pressure.

B.3.2 PRESSURE VESSEL DRAWING
It is very easy to read the drawing because the elevation is

clearly drawn as per scale and all detail is sketched
separately.
B.3.2.1Nozzle orientation of pressure vessel

Fabrication welding and testing of equipment is not
generally done at factory. The fabrication engineer in a
factory can make static equipment to suit the pipe
connections at site, if the nozzle orientation technique is
followed properly.

B.4 PIPING ISOMETRIC DRAWING
B.4.1. General
Piping isometric drawing is a three dimensional drawing

generally used for piping. Each sheet of isometric is self-
explanatory. It contains all information with out referring to
any other sheet.

B.4.2 Basic of Isometric Drawings
There is no separate plan, elevation or end view for an

isometric drawing. All the above information is available
from a single sketch which is drawn in three dimensions.
Three lines at 1200 apart are the base lines for isometric
drawings. One arm indicates the north direction and the
other directions are referred from the north in clockwise.
The lines for east, south, west etc are further developed as
indicated below. The vertical line always represents the up
& down directions.

B.4.3. Off set lines
It is to be noted that all turnings are at 900. Any piping
turned (rolled) other than 900 is permitted only in the
exceptional case. Any rolling other than 900 to any direction
shall be indicated with hatch line.
B.4.4 Scale
All dimensions are specified clearly but isometric drawing is
not drawn in scale. We can see shorter line with larger
dimension & long lines with short dimension

B.4.5 Elevation indication in Isometric
In each isometric the height of the line with respect to

the ground floor is indicated at different locations.
The reference elevation is either from the sea level or any

convenient height at the bottom point of the project
area. If the basic height of the plant is known the height
of all equipment or the height at any point of the piping
can be calculated. The underground piping or the
underground equipment height is specified in minus
readings and above ground piping or equipment height is
specified in plus reading.

B.4.6. Co-ordinates (North & west)
Co-ordinates such as North and West (or East and South)

indicated in the isometric drawing. When the fabrication
work is completed the spool is to be erected at the pre
determined location. The north & west indications in the
isometric help the construction engineer to take the spool to
the required location.

B.4.7. Design pressure, test pressure etc
Some of the information regarding design pressure, test

pressure, design temperature, working temperature etc are
indicated in the bottom part of the isometric.
B.4.8. Material specification
Specifications for materials used for construction of piping

are indicated in material specification part of Isometric
Drawings.

Example
Pipe, 2NS Sch XS, CS ASTM A106 Gr B
2 -The nominal pipe diameter.

Sch XS- (Wall Thickness) in inches or millimeters.
CS- Carbon steel, A 106 Gr B material

B.5 STRUCTURAL DRAWING
B.5.1.General
Metallic structures as well as Concrete structures used in

the oil field construction. Metallic structures constructed
with metal and construction activities such as gas cutting,
grinding, welding, bolting, non destructive testing,
destructive testing, etc are involved in it.

All equipment and piping is supported by either a civil
structure or a mechanical structure. Plan, elevation,
end view cross sectional view etc are drawn on scale.
Dimensions, welding details etc. are clearly shown in

structural drawings. The prominent members of
mechanical structure are Beams, Channels, Angles,
Flats, Round bars and Tubular structures.

B.6 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT DRAWING (GAD)
B.6.1 General
General arrangement drawing is the plan view of the site. It

looks like the plan of a completed site. It is a two-
dimensional drawing of the plant. The GAD is drawn in scale
and all dimensions are scalable. Normally the proportions
are 1:100, 1: 500, 1:1000 etc for the key plan. If a plant is
constructed in different level (ground floor, 1st floor), there
are separate GADs at different elevations.

CHAPTER 2
Basic Awareness to
Materials

Material Classification
Ferrous metals
Carbon Steel, Chromium Steels , Ni Steels
Non- Ferrous metals
Non-metallic materials.

Materials Product Forms
As far as oilfield and related industries are concern the major construction
materials are listed below:
Wrought Product Wrought = worked
Plate (Sheet, Strip)

Forging
Bar
Tubular Products (Pipe, Tube, Fitting)
Bolting (Bolt, Nut, Stud)
Rolled Shapes
Casting
Welding & Brazing Materials

PLATES

Plates
Plate means large metallic sheets with 1/16 (4.76 mm) and
over in thickness and more than 8 (200 mm) in width.
Manufacturing Methods
Hot rolled or Cold rolled
Usage
construction of storage tanks, pressure vessel
and other static equipment.

The major inspection stages are :
1-Visual inspection (Surface finish, pits, dents, cracks, edge

preparations, straightness etc)
2-Dimension check: The plate dimensions such as length,

width, thickness, diagonals etc
3-Correlation of Identification marks with Test Certificate.

(Heat number, cast number, manufacturers emblem etc)

Visual & Dimensional Inspection
Condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands and
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as:

distortion tolerance, number of plates and storage*

4- Sampling
5- Chemical Analysis ( Refer Mater Test certificate)
6- Physical properties ( Refer Material Test Certificate)

(Tensile strength, impact test, bend test, hardness etc)
7- Marking and Packing ( To be checked physically )

Commonly used Materials Standards
ASTM A 516 (Specification for Carbon Steel Plate for Pressure
Vessel for moderate and lower temperature services)
These types of plates are available in four grades as below

ASTM A 516 grade 55 (55 refers to 55000psi tensile strgth)

ASTM A-240 (Specification for Chromium, Chromium
Nickel Stainless Steel plate, sheet, strip for
Pressure Vessels)
This category stainless steel is generally used for

manufacturing pressure vessels and pressure bearing plates.
ASTM A 240 have different types such as type 201, 202, 302,
304, 304H, 304L, 304N like that.

Type 304
This is the most commonly used stainless steel

material for general requirements. It is also known
as 18:8 stainless steel.
Type 316
Type 316 material is having superior quality level
in resisting the corrosion, hydrogen induced cracks
etc when comparing 304. It is comparatively costly
and better surface finish.

Type 309
In this category Cr is increased to a high % (22-24)

and accordingly Ni % also high (12-15).this material
is suitable for welding directly with carbon steel.
Type 309 is known as cladding steel.

PIPES

PIPE PRODUCTS
SEAMLESS PIPE
A wrought tubular product made without a welded seam by drawing
or extrusion process
WELDED PIPES
Welded pipes are manufactured by ERW ( Electric Resistance
Welded).
Pipes in small quantities are manufactured by EFW(electric fusion
-welding) process .
The longitudinal seam is welded by manual or automatic electric arc
process.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON END USE
LINE PIPE
It is mainly used for conveying fluids over long distances
and are subjected to fluid pressure
It is usually not subjected to high temperature
PRESSURE PIPE
These are subjected to fluid pressure and /or
temperature .
Fluid pressure in generally internal pressure or may be
external pressure (e.g.jacketed piping )and are mainly
used as plant piping.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON END USE:
STRUCTURAL PIPE
These are not used for conveying fluids and not subjected
to fluid pressures or temperature. They are used as
structural components (e.g handrails, columns, sleeves
etc.) and are subjected to static loads only.

NOMINAL PIPE SIZE (NPS)
Pipes are designated by nominal size, starting from 1/8
nominal size, and increasing in steps,
For the nominal size up to including 12 there is one unique
O D (different from nominal size)and I D would
vary depending on schedule number .
For nominal sizes 14 and above O.D is same as nominal
size.

AVAILABILTY OF PIPE SIZES
1.Sizes in steps of 1/8 from 1/8to
2.Sizes in steps of from to 1
3 Sizes in steps of from 1 to 4
4.Sizes in steps of 1 from 4 to 6
5.Sizes in steps of 2 from 6 to 36

SCHEDULE NUMBER
Pipes are designated by schedule number .
Schedule number is represented by the pressure carrying
capacity of the pipe.
Sch .No =1000 P/S
Where P- Internal Pressure
S- Allowable tensile strength of material.
For stainless steels schedule number are designated by
suffix S ie 5S, 10S, 40S, 80S etc
Refer ASME B36.19 & B 36.10

Commonly used Materials Specification for Carbon
Steel Pipes
SA 106 (Seamless CS Pipe for High Temperature

Service)
API 5L (Specification for Line Pipe)
SA 672 (Electric fusion welded steel pipe for High
Pressure service at moderate temperatures)
IS 1239 (MS Tubes and other wrought steel fittings)
IS 3589 (Seamless or electrically welded steel pipes
for Water, Gas etc.)

Commonly used Material Specification for Low
Alloy Steel pipes
SA 333 ( Seamless & Welded Pipe for Low Temp)
SA 335 (Seamless Ferritic AS Pipe for High Temp

service)
SA 691 ( Carbon & Alloy steel Pipe , electric fusion

welded for High pressure service at high
temperatures)

Commonly used Material Specification for Stainless
Steel Pipes
Common Material Specifications for Stainless Steel Pipes
SA312 ( Seamless & Welded Austenitic Steel)
SA 358 ( Electric fusion welded Austenitic chromium

Nickel AS Pipe for High Temperature service )

COMPONENTS IN PIPING SYSTEM
Fittings (Elbows, Tees, Reducers, Couplings, Unions,
Olets)
Flanges
Gaskets
Fasteners
Valves
Special fittings
Specialty items (strainers, traps, bellows etc)

FITTINGS
Pipe fittings are the components which tie together
pipelines, valves, and other parts of a piping system.
Fittings may come in butt Welded, Socket welded,

Screwed and flanged connections.
They are used to change the size of the line or its

direction.

STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS
End BUTT WELD/SOCKET WELD/SCREWED/FLANGED
connections
Types
ELBOW TEES CAPS REDUCER STUB END COUPLINGS SWAGE UNION

NIPPLE S
EQUAL REDUCIN LONG SHORT CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC

TEES G STUB END STUB ENDS SWAGE NIPPLE SWAGE
TEES NIPPLE
45 90 CONCENTR ECCENTRIC FULL HALF REDUCING SPECIAL

DEG. DEG. IC REDUCERS COUP- COUP- COUPLINGS FITTINGS
ELBO ELBO REDUCERS LINGS LINGS
W W
LATROLET WELDOLET ELBOWLET SOCKOLET THREADOLET SWEEPOLET NIPPOLET

Common Fittings
90 Elbow Equal Tee
Concentric reducer Eccentric Reducer

TEES
STRAIGHT TEE / EQUAL TEE

It is used when the branch and header are the same.
REDUCING TEE
It is used when the branch size is smaller than the header
size.

ELBOWS
They are used to change direction of pipe.
LONG RADIUS (LR) AND SHORT RADIUS (SR)ELBOWS.
90 degree elbow comes in LR and SR.
45 degree elbow comes in LR only.
The LR elbows radius is 1.5 times the nominal size.
The SR elbows radius is 1 times the nominal size.

MITRE BENDS
These are fabricated bends for larger diameter piping,
low pressure ( 50 psig are less ) pressure applications
It is made out of two, three, four segments of pipe
pieces. These are normally used for non critical services.
( water, drainage, and wend piping )

COUPLINGS
is used to connect small bore pipes as
FULL COUPLING: It
projection of welding inside the pipe bore reduce the
flow area
HALF COUPLING : It is used for branch connection
UNIONS
It is used where dismantling of the pipe is required
more often. It can be with threaded end or socket weld
ends.

REDUCERS
It makes reduction in line size
ECCENTRIC REDUCER
It is used to pump suction to avoid cavitations with top

surface being flat
To maintain elevation bottom of pipe (BOP) in rack .
Offset dimension is the difference of the two inside
diameters.

REDUCERS
CONCENTRIC REDUCER
It is used on pump discharge ,vertical pipe line etc.
SWAGE NIPPLE
It is also like a reducer, it connect butt welded pipe to
smaller screwed or welded pipe .

Materials for Fittings
Common Material Specifications for Fittings
SA 105, SA 182, SA 106, SA312, SA335, IS 1239
SA 234 (Piping Fittings of wrought CS & AS for moderate

& High temperature service)
SA 403 (Wrought Austenitic strainer steel Piping

fittings)

FLANGES
Classification based on the attachment to the piping
SLIP ON
These flanges are attached by fillet welding
inside as well as outside.
SOCKET WELD
These flanges are welded only one side .
Its used for small bore only.

Classification based on the attachment to
the piping
SCREWED
These flanges are used on pipe lines
where low pressure and temperature are envisaged. Generally used in
galvanized lines.
BLIND FLANGE
These flanges are used to close the ends which need to be reopened
later, also used for blanking the dead end during hydro test.

Classification based on the attachment to
the piping
WELDING NECK
These flanges are generally butt welded to the pipes.

Classification of flanges based on Facing
FLAT FACE
Normally flanges having 125 # has a flat face. Since no
raised face it requires full faced gasket.
RAISED FACE
Raised face 1/16 for 150 # and 300 #
Raised face for other series
RING TYPE JOINT
Metallic rings are used in this
ring type joint (RTJ) flanges

RATING OF FLANGE
Flange are also classified by pressure temperature ratings
as per ANSI B 16.5.
It is available in seven ratings 150#, 300#, 400#, 600#,
900#, 1500# and 2500#
These flange rating are called nominal rating.
pressure temperature combines determines the flange
rating.

Materials for Flanges
Commonly used Material Specifications
SA 105 (Carbon steel forgings for Piping Applications)
SA 182 (Forged or Rolled Alloy steel Pipe Flanges,

Forged fittings and , valves & parts for High
temperature service)

REINFORCED FITTINGS

VALVES
Valves are installed in between the pipes / equipment to
perform following functions :
Isolation (gate valve, ball valve, butterfly valves etc)
Regulation (globe valve etc)
Non return (check valve, SDNR etc)
Special purpose (foot valve etc)

BALL VALVE
Ball valve is normally used for positive shut off.

Operation by a quarter turn of operating handle.

GLOBE VALVE
Due to its globular body, it is called Globe

Valve.
There is higher resistance and pressure
drop in this valve.
Most suitable for throttling the flow.

GATE VALVE
Flow is axial piping

Lower pressure drop
It is not recommended for throttling the flow.

BUTTERFLY VALVE
It is widely used on low pressure application . It may be
used to control and regulate the flow.

CHECK VALVE / NON RETURN VALVE
Swing Check Valve

This valve allows flow in one direction
only.
Return flow will automatically close the
valve, thus preventing flow in reverse
direction.

Materials for Valves
Common Material Specifications for Valves are :

SA 105 / SA 182
SA 216 ( Steel Castings , Carbon ,suitable for fusion

welding for High Temperature service)
SA217 ( Steel Castings, Martenstic stainless & alloy ,

for pressure containing parts for High temperature
service )

Ordering Specification
The major points included in a purchase order are listed
below.
The size (length, width, diameter, thickness, etc)
The material specification (Carbon steel, SS, Al, etc) and

their sub specifications such as type, grade etc.
Description of the item.(Pipe, elbow, flange etc)

Standard of manufacturing (ASTM A 106, IS 1249, etc)
Standards of dimension (ANSI B 16.5, 16.9 etc )
Quantity (Total length, Total number etc)
Supply condition (Transportation by supplier or by

contractor)

Delivery date (whether the item is to be completed

together or supply can be made as part quantity, if so the
date and quantity for each delivery)
Inspection test plan (ITP)
Cost of the item.

CHAPTER 3
Familiarization with
codes and Standards

A Standard is
A set of Technical Definitions and guidelines how to

instructions for designers and manufactures
Standards are vehicle of communication for producers and

users .They serve as a common language defining quality
and establishing safety

A Standard Is..
Broader in scope than procedure
Written by an authority or committee
Usually enforced by authority other than authors
Inclusive of theory and educational background for

understanding it

A Code is
A standard consisting of a set of conditions and

requirements relating to a particular subject and
indicatingappropriate procedures by which it can be
determined that the requirements are met

Purpose for Codes & Standards?
They ensure uniform practices

throughout industry

Oilfield construction standards
Various construction standards are used in the oilfield and

related industries
1. ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Boiler

and pressure vessel code)
2. ASTM - American Society for Testing Materials.
3. AISI - American Irons & Steel Institution.
4. AWS - American Welding Society.
5. API - American Petroleum Institute.
6. NACE- National association of Corrosion Engineers

American Society Mechanical Engineers
(Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code)
This standard includes design, fabrication, welding,

destructive and nondestructive testing of Boilers Pressure
Vessels and Nuclear power equipments. The following
sections are useful for design, construction and testing of
pressure vessel and piping.

a) ASME section II
These standards specify the requirements of construction

materials with 4 subdivisions
1. ASME Section II-Part A - Ferrous metals
2. ASME Section II-Part B - Non ferrous metals
3. ASME Section II-Part C- Welding electrodes and

consumables
4. ASME Section II-Part D- Properties

(b) ASME Section V
Standard for non-destructive testing (NDT) such as
radiographic test, Ultrasonic test, Magnetic particle test,
Dye penetration test etc
(c) ASME Section VIII

Standard for design construction and inspection of
pressure vessels
(d) ASME Section IX

Standard for welding and brazing qualification

ASTM standards
This is the master standard for all construction materials
with respect to the chemical properties, manufacturing
method, weld ability, heat treatment, testing and
identification marking system.
In this standard the materials are classified according to
the properties, usage and quality. It is similar to ASME
Standards section II with respect to the material
classification, but more information regarding the
sampling and testing for each requirement.

ANSI ( American National Standards Institute)
ASME has taken over this standard and now it is known as

ASME B standard.
ASME B 31- Pressure Piping Code
B31.1- Power Piping
B 31.3- Process Piping
ASME B 16
16.5- Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
( NPS inch to 24inch)
16.9- Factory Made Wrought Butt Welding
Fitting

AWS (American Welding Society)
It is purely a welding standard, which explains about the

weld joint configuration, welding positions, welding
method, welding process, welding electrodes, welder
qualification etc.

API (American Petroleum Institution)
It is the standard for the petroleum construction field.
A series of standards are coming under API. Each
standard is individually complete. Some of the
standards coming under API are listed below.
API 650 Standard for construction and testing of
storage tanks.
API 1104 Standard for Pipeline and Related
Facilities. (Also known as cross country pipe line
standard)
API 5L -Specification for Line pipes

NACE (National Association of corrosion Engineers)
This is a series of standards related to corrosion

Engineering. Common NACE standards used in Oil & Gas
industry are as mentioned below
MATERIAL REQMTS TESTING METHODS

NACE MR 0175 NACE TM 0177
NACE MR0103 NACE TM 0284

CHAPTER 4
Basics of Welding

Diversity of welding processes
welding
Solid state welding Fusion welding Soldering and

brazing
Resistance welding
Cold welding Soldering
Friction welding
Diffusion welding Electrical energy Brazing
Flash welding
Ultrasonic welding
Explosion welding
Chemical energy
Consumable Non Oxyacetylene welding
electrode consumable Oxyfuel gas welding
electrode
Gas metal arc welding
Shielded metal arc
Gas tungsten arc welding Other
welding
Atomic hydrogen welding
Submerged arc welding
Plasma arc welding processes
Flux cored arc welding
Electrogas welding Laser beam welding
Electroslag welding Thermit welding
Electron beam welding

Fusion welding
This process involves the partial melting of the two

members welded in the join region. The thermal
energy required for this fusion is usually supplied
by chemical or electrical means.
Base metal melt + filler melt
Base metal is melted

Filler metal may be added
Heat is supplied by various means
Oxyacetylene gas
Electric Arc
Plasma Arc
Laser

Arc Welding
A sustained arc generates the heat for melting the

work piece and filler material.
Consumable electrodes
Non-consumable electrodes

Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) Uses a spool of filler wire fed
through the hand-piece. A core of flux is inside the wire
Two versions
Self-shielded flux-cored arc welding includes not only

fluxes but also ingredients that generate shielding gases for
protecting the arc.
Gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding developed primarily

for welding steels, obtains a shielding from externally
supplied gases, similar to GMAW

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) uses a continuous, consumable
bare wire electrode, and arc shielding is provided by a cover of
granular flux. Low-carbon, low alloy, and stainless steels can be
readily welded by SAW.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) (stick) arc is struck between

the rod (shielded metal covered by flux) and the work pieces to
be joined, the impurities rise to the top of the weld in the form
of slag
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) (metal + inert gas) electrode is

continuously fed through the welding gun and is shielded by an
inert gas

Non-consumable Electrodes
Gas Tungsten ARC welding - GTAW (Tungsten inert gas -TIG)
Tungsten electrode not consumed, but surrounded by an
inert gas and produces an arc.
Filler material is usually applied.
Gas tungsten arc welding does not produce as deep a
penetration as stick or other types of welding.
GTAW is a slow method of welding, which results in an
expensive product.
It can be used to weld aluminum, magnesium, titanium,
and stainless steels.
Plasma-Arc welding (PAW) An arc is created in a plasma
(ionized) gas and a filler material may or may not be applied
to the weld joint

SHEILDED METAL ARC WELDING

The GMAW process
The heat is produced by an electric arc between the continuously
fed metal electrode and the base metal. Both the base metal and
the filler are melt. The weld area is protected by inert shield
gases. Weldable metals:
-steel carbon
- steel low-allow
- steel stainless
- aluminum
- copper and its
allows
- nickel and its allows
- magnesium
- reactive metal
(titanium,
zirconium,
tantalum)

Submerged-Arc Welding
Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process

and equipment. The unused flux is recovered and reused.

Flux-Cored Arc-Welding
Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-
welding process. This operation is similar to gas
metal-arc welding,

Gas Metal-Arc
Welding
Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly

known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.

Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
Equipment for gas tungsten-arc

welding operations.
Tungsten electrode acts as a cathode
The gas tungsten-arc welding A plasma is produced between the
process, formerly known as TIG tungsten cathode and the base metal
(for tungsten inert gas) welding. which heats the base metal to its melting
point
Filler metal can be added to the weld
pool

Plasma-Arc Welding
Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a)

transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds
can be made by this process at high welding speeds.

WELDING EQUIPMENT
Welding machines are classified in many categories

according to the working principles. The commonly used
types of welding machines are
Welding transformer (AC)

Welding rectifier (DC)
Welding generator (DC)
Alternator (AC)
Inverter technology (DC)

Transformer rectifier
set
D.C. Inverter Set

A SINGLE
OPERATOR A.C.
TRANSFORMER
WITH A MOVING
CORE.
Advantages:
Step-less
current
adjustment
Current can
be adjusted
during
welding.

WELD JOINT CONFIGURATIONS.
To join two metals, the edges to be joined can be properly

designed to get the required result.
There are different types of welding used in the industry,

but most commonly used types are butt-welding and fillet
weld

Joint Design
BUTT JOINT FILLET JOINT
STRAP JOINT
CORNER JOINT
LAP JOINT

Types of Joints
Butt joints: *
T joints: *
Lap joints: *
Corner joints:* Closed Open

corner corner*
Weld Preparations
Remember, the purposes of a weld preparation is to allow access
for the welding process, penetration and fusion through the area
of the joint and its faces*
The basic rule is this:

The more you take out, then the more you must put back in*

Weld Preparations
Angle of bevel*
Root face*
Included angle*
Root radius* Root gap*
Root landing*
Types of Single Butt Preparation
Single bevel
Single V
Single J
Single U*
Types of Double Butt Preparation
Double bevel
Double V
Double J
Double U*
Types of Welds
Butt welds:*
Fillet welds:*
Spot/Seam welds:*
Plug/Slot welds:*
Edge welds:*
Welded Joints
Butt Joints
A butt welded butt joint*
A fillet welded butt joint*
A compound welded butt joint*

Welded Joints
T Joints
A fillet welded T joint*
A butt welded T joint*
A compound welded T joint*

Welded Joints
Lap Joints
A fillet welded Lap joint*
A spot welded Lap joint*
A compound welded Lap joint*

Welded Joints
Closed Corner Joints

A fillet welded Closed Corner joint*
A butt welded Closed Corner joint*
A compound welded Closed Corner joint*

Welded Joints
Open Corner Joints

An inside fillet welded Open Corner joint*
An outside fillet welded Open Corner joint*
A double fillet welded Open Corner joint*

A Butt Welded Butt Joint
Weld Face*
Actual Throat Thickness*
Weld Width*
1.2.3.4. Weld Toes* Design Throat Thickness*
1 2
A
B 3 4
HAZ* Fusion Boundary*

Weld Root* Fusion Zone*
A + B = Excess
Introductory Weld
course for Metal**
Sizing of Fillet Welds
Vertical Leg Length*
Weld face*
Horizontal Leg Length*

Excess weld metal **
Design throat*
Actual throat* course for
Introductory
Nominal & Effective Throat Thickness
a = Nominal throat thickness s = Effective throat thickness
a s
Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW & SAW etc*

Fillet Weld Profiles
Convex Concave Mitre
*
oncave is preferred for joints subject to fatigue loa
Weld Symbols on Drawings
Welding Symbols
Most weld symbols contain 5 elements, which are:
1) The arrow line* a. 7 b. 10 5 x 100 (100)

111*
2) The reference line*
3) The symbol*
4) The dimensions*
5) The supplementary information*

1) Convention of the arrow line:

BS. BSEn & AWS
a) Shall touch the joint intersection
b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing
c) Shall point towards a single plate preparation*

2) Convention of The reference line:

BS 499 (UK) & AWS A 2.4 (US)
a) Shall touch the arrow line
b) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing*

Symbols: BS 499 (UK) & AWS A2.4 (US)

a) Welds this side of joint, go underneath the reference line
b) Welds the other side of the joint, go on top of the reference line
c) Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with the vertical line
to the left side of the symbol
d) All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol
e) All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the symbol i.e. Number of
welds, length of welds, length of any (spaces)*
10 4 x 50 (50)*

Representation of welds done from both sides of

the joint intersection, touched by the arrow head
Fillet weld Double bevel Double J*
Double V Double U

Supplementary Weld Symbols
Toes to be ground
smoothly. (BSEn only)
Site Weld
Ground flush
Concave or Convex
111
Weld all round Welding process.
Numerical BS En & BS

Symbols Exercise
All butt welds are MIG welded and all fillet welds with SMAW
Complete a symbols drawing for the welded
joint given below to BS 499
7 10
35 20
15 30
All Fillet weld leg lengths are 10 mm *

Solution BS 499 10
a. 30 111
131
a. 20
10
*
a. 7 b 10
111 a. 35
131 a. 15
10

Passes
Weld Pass - A single progression of welding along a
joint. The result of a pass is a weld bead or layer

Fill Pass Cover Pass
Root Pass Hot Pass

6/3/17 Mechanical Engineers
The first pass of weld ( root pass) melts the root face and penetrates
through the root gap
It is the most difficult job for a welder to complete a successful root
pass.
The penetration shall be slightly below the bottom level of the base
metal. The penetration shall be continuous and uniform.
After the successful completion of the root pass welding, the welding
slag over the weld bead is removed properly by chipping, grinding and
wire brushing, a next pass is immediately made, is called hot pass.
It is clear from the name it self that the hot pass is Made before the
base metal is totally cooled.

In order to fill the bevel portion, further passes
are made, known as fill up pass.
When the bevel is filled properly subsequent

passes are made as reinforcement pass,
also known as capping.

WELDING POSITIONS
Flat position
Horizontal position
Vertical position
Overhead position

Welding Positions
INCREASING DIFFICULTY
FLAT
HORIZONTAL
OVERHEAD
VERTICAL

Classification of Coated Electrodes
SMAW
CARBON STEEL ELECTRODE FOR SMAW

(AWS A 5.1/ASME SFA 5.1)
Carbon steel materials are successfully welded with SMAW

process. As per AWS classification all carbon steel electrodes
are classified under AWS A 5.1 (ASME SFA 5.1).

ROOT WELDING ELECTRODE (E 6010).
This electrode is also known as deep penetration electrode.

The flux material is high percent cellulose. The core wire is
carbon steel with tensile value 60000psi. During welding,
this electrode produce high amount of fumes with spray
character, which help the molten metal to penetrate
through narrow
cavities.

LOW HYDROGEN ELECTRODE
Low hydrogen electrodes are special electrodes which

contain minimized hydrogen content in flux. Weld joints
made using these electrodes have high resistance to crack.
It should be baked at approximately 2500c for one hour and
maintained at temperature between 100 1500c.
E 7015 E 7016 E 7018

LOW ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODE FOR SMAW [SFA 5.5]
In SMAW large varieties of electrodes are available for the
low alloy steel. The identification system used for low alloy
steel electrode for SMAW is almost similar to the carbon
steel electrode identification.
e.g.1. E 7010 A1 is a low alloy steel electrode and it is

clear that tensile strength is 70000PSI, all position welding is
the meaning for the third digit (1). High cellulose sodium is
the type of covering.

LOW ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODE FOR SMAW [SFA 5.5]
Suffix letter used for identification is

Carbon Molybdenum steel electrode (A)
Chromium Molybdenum steel electrode (B)
Nickel Steel electrode (C)
Manganese molybdenum steel electrode(D)
General low alloy steel electrode(G)
For more detail, ref ASME Sec II Part C SFA 5.5

STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES FOR SMAW (SFA 5.4)
ASME section 2 part C SFA 5.4 or AWS A5.4 is the

specification for stainless steel, coated electrodes (SMAW).
Some of the common stainless steel electrodes are
E 308 (X) XX: These electrodes are generally used
for welding 304 materials. Thenormal chemical
composition is 19 % Cr and 10% Nickel.
E 309 (X) XX: As explained earlier type 309
electrodes are suitable for welding stainless steel
plates or pipes directly with carbon steel. (Base metal
of type 304, generally used for welding with Cs, using
E 309 electrode)

TERMS USED IN WELDING
Back Chip and Re weld

Improper root weld deposit in pressure vessels, storage
tanks etc is chipped back from inside to sound metal and re-
weld
Backing strip
A metallic (or no metallic) ring inserted at root from inside
prior to root welding of certain joints.

Effect of welding current
Optimum amperage is to be selected to avoid weld defect
like incomplete penetration, burn through, excess
penetration, crack etc.
According to the electrode size (diameter) the amperage

varied. The approximate amperage recommended for carbon
steel electrode with DC machine is given below.

Effect of Travel speed
It is necessary for welding engineer to check the travel

speed of welding to control the heat input per area. Travel
speed means the movement of electrode in inch per minute
or mm/min. If the travel speed is too low the heat input is
too high which may effect the grain formation and cause
crack and other defects.

Polarity.
Polarity is one of the terms used when welding with DC

welding machine. When the positive pole connected to the
electrode holder (or torch) and negative pole connected to
the work piece to be welded, 66% of the total heat is
generated at
The electrode tip and 33% of heat is generated at the work

piece and wise versa.

P NUMBERING
In ASME Section 9 according to the weld ability, the
chemistry and physical properties, materials are grouped
under P numbering
The ferrous metals are classified from P1 to P11 and non
ferrous materials are grouped under P number 21 and
above.
FILLER METALS (F Numbering)
Filler material means the consumable part employed in
welding. In SMAW welding electrode is the filler material.
Filler materials are grouped as F numbering. These
groupings are F1, F2, F3 like that.

D.11 WELD METAL ANALYSYS (A numbering)
Chemistry and physical properties of the deposited weld
metal will have the mixed characters of the base material and
filler material and are classified as
A1 Mild Steel
A2 Carbon Mo steel
A3 Cr- Mo steel (0.4%-2% Cr)
A4 Chromium (Cr)-Mo steel (2-6% Cr) etc

WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION
(WPS) /
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD
( PQR)

Welding Qualifications
A Mandatory Requirement from Codes /Stds /

Regulations
Qualification Tests in accordance with the
Applicable Code / Standard / Regulation.
Acceptance Criteria of Test Results as per the
Code of Construction
Qualification Records and Test Results to be
Documented

Reference Code
For Equipments/Piping
ASME Sec IX + Applicable Design Code (Sec.VIII Div I or
II, Sec. I, Sec. III, B31.3)
For Structural Steel

AWS D1.1

Mechanical Engineers 157
WELDING PROCEDURE
SPECIFICATION
WPS .
A WPS is written qualified welding procedure

prepared to provide direction to the welder for
making production welds to code requirements.

158
PROCEDURE
QUALIFICATION RECORD
PQR
A PQR is essentially a record of welding data

used to weld a test coupon. It also contains the
test results of the tested specimens. Recorded
variables normally fall within a small range of
the actual variables that will be used in
production welding.

PURPOSE OF WPS/PQR
The purpose of WPS and PQR is to ensure that the

welding procedure proposed for construction is
capable of giving weldment the require properties
for its
intended application
The welding procedure qualification is therefore
strictly to establish the metallurgical compatibility
of the weldment through mechanical tests.

WRITING OF A WELDING PROCEDURE
SPECIFICATION (WPS)
A typical working procedure specification is
written first with all the factors of production in
mind.
Both experience and technological awareness
help to write an acceptable WPS.
The WPS is a list of the following welding
variables with the proper values of these
entered accordingly.

SPECIFICATION (WPS)
Variables include
Welding process
Base metal
Joint design
Filler metal
Position
Preheat / Interpass / Post heat
Electrical characteristics
PWHT
Gases
Techniques (Stringer / weave bead;
Transfer mode; orifice dia. etc.,)
SPECIFICATION (WPS)
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Depending on their influence on the weld

properties, some of them are listed as
Essential Variables, some others as
Supplementary Essential Variables and the
others as Non Essential Variables.

163
SPECIFICATION (WPS)
ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Essential variables when changed beyond the allowable

limits while welding, alter the prescribed weld
properties.
Hence, production welds with such altered variables

should not be made without re qualification and
certification of the procedure.

SPECIFICATION (WPS)
SUPPLEMENTARY ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Some more variables from the above list are

declared as Essential, in case where a procedure
qualification is applied for a weldment going for
notch toughness applications. These
variables are called Supplementary Essential
Variables.

SPECIFICATION (WPS)
NON ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Those welding variables which when changed

during welding (within logical limits) do not alter
the desired weld properties are called Non
Essential Variables.

166
How To Qualify Groove Butt Weld Procedure?
6) Acceptance Criteria for Test Results.

Tensile Strength (Qw / QB-422)
- Minimum Tensile Strength of Material Used
Bend Test (Qw 163)

- Opening Not More Than 3.2 mm in Any Direction on
Convex Surface Within the Weld & HAZ

Mechanical Engineers 167
7) PQR Procedure Qualification Record

- PQR Format Available in Sec. IX
- Record All Relevant Data in the Format.
- Record All Mechanical Test Results
- Attach All Test Reports & Welding Parameters
Used as Annexure to PQR
- Assign Unique Number to Each PQR
- WPS No Shall be Referred in PQR

QUALIFICATION OF WELDING PROCEDURES AS PER ASME
SECTION IX.
ASME provides a sample form for WPS (QW-482)

which may be used or modified provided that it
covers all the relevant data.
The completed WPS describes all of the welding
variables essential, supplementary essential
(when applicable) and non-essential for the
welding process.
The WPS should reference the supporting
qualification record (PQR).

P Number Grouping
(Base Metal For Qualification)
Group Met. Quality &
P- No Met. Spec. Grade
No Form
1 SA 515 / SA 60 CS Plate
P1 2 516 SA 515 / 70 CS Plate
SA 516
1 SA 106 A/ B CS Pipe
P1
2 SA 106 C CS - Pipe
1 SA333 6 CS Pipe
P1
3 SA 333 10 CS - Pipe
1 SA 234 WPB CS Pipe Fitting
P1
2 SA 234 WPC CS Pipe Fitting
P1 1 SA 285 C/B CS Plate
P1 1 SA 179 --- CS Tube
1 SA 105 --- CS Forging
P1
2 SA 181 Cl 70 CS Forging

PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (PQR)
ASME section IX provides a sample form (QW-483)

for PQR which may be used or modified provided
that it covers all the relevant data.
Many of the data required by the PQR is the same

as the information on the referenced WPS and in
addition contains the record of the mechanical tests.
Normally two transverse tensile tests and four bend

tests (2face + 2 root or 4 side bends) are required
to be conducted to qualify a procedure.

Procedure Qualification - SMAW Variables
Group of Supplementary Nonessentia

Brief Of Variables Essential
Variables Essential l
QW 402 Change in Groove Design --- --- *
Joints Addition / Deletion of Backing --- --- *
Change in group Of P No --- * ---
T Limits Impact --- * ---
QW 403 T/t Limits 203 mm * --- ---

Base Metals Change in T Qualified * --- ---
t pas 13 mm * --- ---
Change of P Number Qualified * --- ---
Change in F No * --- ---
Change in A No * --- ---
QW 404 Change in Dia --- --- *

Filler Metals Change in Dia 6 mm --- * ---
Change in AWS classification --- * ---
Change in t qualified * --- ---

Procedure Qualification - SMAW Variables
Group of Supplementary
Brief Of Variables Essential Nonessential
Variables Essential
QW 405 Addition of Position --- --- *
Positions Change in Position --- * ---
QW 406 Decrease 56C * --- ---

Preheat Increase 56C IP --- * ---
QW 407 Addition / Deletion of PWHT * --- ---

PWHT Change in Time & Temp. Qualified --- * ---
Increase in Heat Input --- * ---
QW 409
Electrical Change in Current / Polarity --- * ---
Characteristics
Change in Current / Voltage --- --- *
Change from String / Weave --- --- *
QW 410 Method of Cleaning --- --- *

Technique Method of Back Gouging --- --- *
Change From Multiple to Single Pass --- * ---

1) Read & Understand

ASME Sec. IX
- Welding Data - Essential, Non Essential &
Supplementary Essential Variables.
- Test Requirements
- Testing Procedures
ASME Sec.II Part C.
- Classification of Welding Consumable
- Properties of Consumables

2) Write A Welding Procedure Specification WPS

on EssentialVariables
- WPS Format Available in ASME Sec. IX.
- Each WPS Shall be Assigned with A Unique

Number.

3) Prepare A Test Coupon As Per WPS
) Coupon Size: Pair of 300 mm X 150mm Plate Or as
Specified in WPS
) All Other Details as per Written WPS
) Complete the Welding by Reasonably Skilled
Welder
) All Welding Variables Shall be Used Within the
Limit
) Specified in WPS.
) All Variables Actually Used Shall be Documented as
Annexure to PQR ( Procedure Qualification Record)

4) NDT Of Weld Coupon - Optional
- X-Ray / Radiograph the Weld Joint ( Not a Code
Requirement )
- Mark Transverse Tensile & Guided Bends As Per
QW461
- Eliminate Defective Weld Portion If Any, While
Marking the Test Specimens
- Preserve RT Report & X-Ray Film as Annexure to PQR

5) Mechanical Tests Qw 451, Groove Weld.

Up to 9 mm Thickness
- Transverse Tensile : 2No
- Root Bend :- 2No
- Face Bend :- 2No
Over 9 mm Thickness
- Transverse Tensile :- 2No
- Side Bend :- 4No

7) PQR Procedure Qualification Record

- PQR Format Available in Sec. IX
- Record All Relevant Data in the Format.
- Record All Mechanical Test Results
- Attach All Test Reports & Welding Parameters Used
as Annexure to PQR
- Assign Unique Number to Each PQR
- WPS No Shall be Referred in PQR

CHAPTER 5
Destructive & Non

Destructive Testing

Non Destructive Testing

Introduction to Nondestructive Testing

Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive

techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of an
object.

Methods of NDT
age
Flux Leak The
rmo
grap
hy
Micro
w a ve
Visual
c Particle
eti
Magn
X-ray Acoustic
Acoust M icroscop ant
y e tr
ic Emissio
n ui d Pen
L iq
en ts
su rem
ea
etic M
Ma gn Eddy
Curr
ent
Ult Laser
ras Inter Replication
on ferom
ic eter

Uses of NDE Methods?
Flaw Detection and Evaluation

Leak Detection
Location Determination
Dimensional Measurements
Fluorescent penetrant indication
Structure and Microstructure Characterization
Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

Six Most Common NDT Methods
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current
X-ray

Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.
Tools include fiberscope's,

borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Robotic crawlers permit

observation in hazardous
or tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection
A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed
time to seep into surface breaking defects.
The excess liquid is removed from the surface of
the part.
A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on
the surface where it can be seen.
Visual inspection is the final step in the process.

What Makes PT Work?
Every step of the penetrant process is
done to promote capillary action.
This is the phenomenon of a liquid rising

or climbing when confined to small
openings due to surface wetting
properties of the liquid.
Some examples:
Plants and trees draw water up from
the ground to their branches and
leaves to supply their nourishment.
The human body has miles of
capillaries that carry life sustaining
blood to our entire body.

Basic Process of PT
1) Clean & Dry Component 4) Apply Developer
2) Apply Penetrant
5) Visual Inspection
3) Remove Excess
6) Post Clean Component

Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a
dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These particles are
attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an
indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can be
visually detected under proper lighting conditions.

Magnetic Particle Crack Indications

Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing
High Electrical Potential
is a higher energy (shorter wavelength)
version of the electromagnetic waves that
we see as visible light. The radiation can Electrons
come from an X-ray generator or a + -
radioactive source.
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Exposure Recording Device

Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation

source and a piece of film. The part will
stop some of the radiation. Thicker and
more dense area will stop more of the
radiation.
The film darkness (density)

will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film
through the test object.
X-ray film
= less exposure
= more exposure

Radiographic Images

Eddy Current Testing
Coil's
Coil magnetic field
Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents
Conductive
Introductory course for material
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for
detecting surface cracks

Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material and they are reflected back from surfaces or
flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen f
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.
initial
pulse
back surface
echo
crack
echo
crack
0 2 4 6 8 10
plate
Oscilloscope, or
flaw detector Mechanical Engineers
Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal
strength or time-of-flight using a computer-controlled
scanning system.
Gray scale image produced using the

Gray scale image produced using sound reflected from the back surface
the sound reflected from the front of the coin (inspected from heads
surface of the coin side)

Common Application of NDT
Inspection of Raw Products

Inspection Following Secondary Processing
In-Services Damage Inspection

Inspection of Raw Products
Forgings,
Castings,
Extrusions,
etc.

Inspection For In-Service Damage
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wear
Heat Damage
etc.

Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of a
large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and ultrasonic
testing.

Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage
the environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic
testing are some of the NDT
methods used.

Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large
above ground tanks
for signs of thinning
due to corrosion.
Cameras on long
articulating arms
are used to
inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage.

Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger tubes
to check for corrosion damage.
Pipe with damage

Probe
Signals
produced by
various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.

Destructive Testing

Mechanical Testing
To establish the level of mechanical
Why ?*
properties*
Which properties ?*
1) Hardness*
2) Toughness*
3) Tensile strength*
4) Ductility*

Introduction to Mechanical Testing
We test welds to establish minimum levels of
mechanical properties, and soundness of the welded
joint*
Test are divided into Quantitative & Qualitative

methods:*
1) Quantitative
1) Quantitative tests:
tests: (Have
(Have units)*
units)*
2) Qualitative
2) Qualitative tests:
tests: (Have no
(Have no
units)*
units)*

Introduction to Mechanical Testing
Types of tests include:
1) Quantitative
Quantitative tests:
tests: 2) Qualitative
2) Qualitative tests:
tests:
1)
Hardness tests
tests Macro tests
Macro tests
Hardness
Toughness tests
Toughness tests Bend tests
Bend tests
Tensile strength
strength tests*
tests* Fracture tests*
Fracture tests*
Tensile

Hardness Testing
Generally we use a diamond or steel ball to form an
indentation
We measure the width of the indentation to gauge the

hardness*

Hardness Testing
1) Vickers Diamond Pyramid: Always uses a diamond*
2) Brinell hardness test: Always uses a steel ball*
3) Rockwell hardness test: Uses a ball, or diamond

depending on the scale*

Charpy V Testing
Machined notch 10 x 10 mm
The specimen may be tested from different areas of the

weld.*
Graduated scale Pendulum
of absorbed Hammer
energy in Joules*
Location of
specimen
Toughness Testing
1) Charpy V test: 10 x 10 (Specimen horizontal)

Joules*
2) Izod test: 10 x 10 (Specimen vertical)

Ft.lbs*
3) CTOD test: Specimen used is actual design

size. Detailed fracture report.
mm*

Transverse Tensile Test
A Section of weld is cut, or machined out across the test
piece and tested in tension to failure. The units are
usually in N/mm
Transverse reduced test piece*

Radius Reduced Transverse Tensile Test
Radius
(For radius reduced test specimens
only)
Weld
Test gripping area HAZ

Direction of test
Plate material Reduced Section

Used to assess the tensile strength of the weld

metal
All Weld Metal Tensile Test
BS 709 / BS En 10002
All Weld Metal Tensile
Testing
Direction of the test *
Tensile test piece cut

along weld specimen.

Ductility Elongation %
Firstly, before the tensile test 2 marks are made 50mm apart
50 mm
During the test, Yield point & Tensile strength are measured
The specimen is put together and the marks are re-measured
75 mm
A new measurement of 75mm will indicate Elongation E50 %*

Macro Inspection
1) Excess Weld Metal Height 8) Poor Toe Blend*

7) Laminations
6)Porosity
2) Lack of Sidewall Fusion

5) Root Penetration
3) Lack of Root Fusion 4) Slag inclusion & Lack of inter-run fusion

Bend Tests
Guide A Guided root bend test*
Lack of root fusion shown here*
Former
Test Piece
Force
Bend tests are used to establish fusion in the area under test
Further tests include face, side and longitudinal bend tests*
For material over 12 mm thickness, side bend test may be used*

Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Saw cut 1 2 3
Hammer blow X Line of fusion

1 3
Fracture line
Full fracture
X
2 3
1 2
Y Any strait line indicates a
Inspect both surfaces
Lack of root fusion*
Summary of Mechanical Testing
We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint
We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:*

Quantitative: (Have
Quantitative: (Have units)
units) Qualitative: (Have
Qualitative: (Have no
no units)
units)
Hardness (VPN
Hardness (VPN && BHN)
BHN) Macro tests
Macro tests
Toughness (Joules
Toughness (Joules && ft.lbs)
ft.lbs) Bend tests
Bend tests
Strength (N/mm
Strength (N/mm22 && PSI)
PSI) Fillet weld
Fillet weld fracture
fracture tests
tests
Ductility/Elongation (E%)
Ductility/Elongation (E%) Butt Nick
Butt Nick break
break tests*
tests*

Introductory course
for Mechanical
Engineers
Organized by KERA in association with

Induscan Petroleum Institute India
Day 2 18th September 2010

Venue- Emirates Techno Casting , Hamriya Free Zone

CHAPTER 6
Inspection And Testing

INSPECTION & TEST PLAN

INSPECTION OF PIPING
Material Inspection
Verification of Fit-up & Alignment
before Welding
Inspection of Welding
NDT & other Testing of Piping

Material Inspection
Material Verification can be carried out
either at the Supplier or Purchaser premises
as per their mutual agreement.
Material Verification can be carried out by

the Purchaser Inspection representative or
any Third party nominated by the Purchaser.

Material Inspection
Material Inspection involves :
Visual & Dimensional Inspection.
Test Certificate Verification as per
applicable standard.
Any Supplementary Test specified by
the Purchaser besides mandatory
requirements o the standard. Stamp of
Inspector on the Material

Pipe Inspection
Condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations &
Seam)
Specification LP 5
Size
Welded seam
Other checks such as:

distortion, tolerance, number and storage*
Verification of Fit-up & Alignment before
Welding
Inspection of Welds
Stress Relieving Treatment
Non Destructive testing
Test Pack Preparation
Hydrotest

CHAPTER 7
Fabrication & Erection

Pressure Vessel Fabrication
ASME BPV- Section VIII Div 1

DISH END FORMING

TYPES OF PRESSURE VESSEL
BASED ON APPLICATION
COLUMNS
SEPARATORS
REACTORS
STORAGE DRUMS

TYPES OF PRESSURE VESSEL
BASED ON THICKNESS
THICK WALLED VESSEL
THIN WALLED VESSEL

DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION CODE
ASME
Sec VIII Div I, II, III
Sec III
Sec I
TEMA
+
CUSTOMER
IBR SPECIFICATION
PD (BS) 5500
AD Merkblatt
POYYARA
CONSULTANTS

COMPONENTS OF VESSEL
PRESSURE PARTS
SHELL
DISH END
NOZZLES/MANWAYS
INTERNALS
NON PRESSURE PARTS

SKIRT/EXTERNALSUPPORTS/
SADDLES/LEG

PLATE ROLLING

DISH END FORMING

FORMED DISHEND

SKIRT

NOZZLE FABRICATION

SHELL FIT UP ( Longitunal Seam)

SHELL FIT UP ( Longitunal Seam)

SHELL FIT UP ( circumferential seam)

NOZZLE to Shell FitUp

NOZZLE to Shell Fitup

Nozzle to Dish end fit up

Primer Coated

Final Coat

Vessel Ready for Dispatch

TANK FABRICATION
API 650

CODES / STANDARDS USED FOR STORAGE TANK DESIGN
TANK OPERATING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

DESIGNED AS PER API 650
TANK OPERATING AT LOW PRESSURES DESIGNED

AS PER API 620
SPHERES (AS PER ASME SEC. VIII OR BS 5500)
BULLETS (AS PER ASME SEC. VIII OR BS 5500)

MAJOR COMPONENTS
SHELL
BOTTOM PLATE
ROOF PLATE:
SUPPORTED CONE
SELF SUPPORTED CONE ROOF
NOZZLES
FLANGES
ATTACHMENTS
LEVEL GAUGES
HEATING COILS

TANK FOUNDATION AT SITE

Bottom plates

Pre Fabricated Plates

PETALS Profile Marking

Sketch plate
Annular plate

SKETCH PLATE FINAL DIMENSION
Bevel Preparation Check

TANK BOTTOM PLATES

TANK SHELL CONSTRUCTION

TANK SHELL CONSTRUCTION

TANK WITH STAIRCASE

ROOF SUPPORT

ROOF INSTALLATION

DOME ROOF TANK

STRUCTURAL
FABRICATION

CNC - CUTTING

CNC - DRILLING

Plate Cutting

Drilling & Punching

Fit up

Welding

Final Inspection

Blasting

Primer Application

Intermediate Coat

Final Coat

CHAPTER 8
Surface Preparation

Surface preparation
Application Methods
Testing Methods
Coatings Failures

Surface preparation
Degreasing
Hand tool cleaning
Power tool cleaning
Flame cleaning
Blast cleaning

Surface Preparation Degreasing
It is essential to remove all traces of oil, grease,

drilling/ cutting compounds and any other surface
contaminants.
The most common method is by solvent washing,
followed by wiping dry with clean rags.
Recommended procedures are described in SSPC-
SP1.

Surface Preparation Hand tool
Cleaning
It is a method of preparing steel surfaces by the use of
non-power hand tools. Loosely adhering mill scale, rust
and old paint coatings may be removed from steel by
chipping, scraping, hand wire brushing and emery paper
cleaning. However, these methods are incomplete and
always leave a layer of tightly adhering rust on the steel
surface. Procedures for hand tool cleaning are described
in SSPC-SP2 and should be to ST2 grade of Swedish
Standard or ISO 8501-1: 1988.

Surface Preparation Power tool
Cleaning
For the removal of loosely adhering mill scale, paint and
dust, this is more effective and less laborious method
than hand tool cleaning. It will not however remove
tightly adhering mill scale.
Power wire brushes, needle guns grinders and disc sanders

are generally used. Care should be taken, particularly
when using power wire brushes, not to polish the metal
surface, as this will reduce the key for subsequent
painting. Methods are described in SSPC-SP3 and should be
to ST3 grade of Swedish Standard or ISO 8501-1: 1998.

Surface Preparation Blast
Cleaning
By far the most effective method for removal of mill
scale, rust and old coating by using abrasives such as
sand, grit or shots directed at high velocity against the
surface. Prior to blasting, steelwork should be
degreased and all weld spatters removed. Weld seams
and sharp edges should be ground down. This is because
paint coatings tend to run away from sharp edges,
resulting in thin coatings and reduced protection. The
grade of blasting suitable for a particular coating
specification depends on a number of factors, the most
important of which is the type of coating system
selected.

Commonly used grades for blast
cleaning
Steel Structures Painting Council
-SSPC(USA)
National Association of Corrosion
Engineers - NACE (USA)
British Standard BS 4232 (UK)
Swedish Standard- SA - SIS 05 5900 -
1967 / ISO 8501-1 : 1988

Blast Grades
SSPC NACE BS 4232 Swedish
standard
White SSPC SP 5 NACE# 1 1st Quality SA3
Metal
Near White SSPC SP NACE# 2 2nd SA 2
Metal 10 Quality
Commercia SSPC SP 6 NACE# 3 3rd SA 2
l blast Quality
Brush off SSPC SP 7 NACE# 4 - SA 1
blast

B Sa 1
B Sa 2

C Sa 1 C Sa 2 1/2
C Sa 2
C Sa 3

D Sa 1
D Sa 2 1/2
D Sa 3
D Sa 2

Rust Grades

Application Methods
Brush Application
Roller Application
Conventional Spray
Airless Spray
Pressure Pot

Application Methods
Brush Application
Brush Application is a relatively slow procedure, but is

generally used for decorative paints and for coating
small areas. It is particularly suitable for coating
complex small areas where the use of spray method
leads to considerable losses due to overspray. High film
built will generally will not achieved by brush
application.

Application Methods
Roller Application
This is a faster method than brush application on

large, even surfaces and can be used for application
for thixotrophic protective coatings but control of
film thickness and high film build is not achieved.

Application Methods
Airless Spray
Unlike conventional spray and pressure pot air is not
mixed air is not mixed with the paint to form a spray,
hence the name airless spray. Atomization is achieved by
forcing the paint through specially designed nozzles or
tips, by hydraulic pressure. High build coatings can be
applied without thinning. Very rapid application possible,
giving an economic advantage.

Application Methods
Pressure Pots
These are used in association with conventional spray
guns to provide a means of delivering paint from a tank
to a spray gun through a hose. The compressed air,
which has entered the tank forces, paints from it to the
gun through a hose and atomizes the paint. Paint in the
tank is prevented from settling by means of a stirrer
driven by a compressed air motor or by hand Pressure
pots are used in cases where large quantities of paint
are to be applied and their use, instead of a gravity feed
cup attached to spray gun, reduces waste time in
constant refilling and also enables the gun to be turned
to any angle without spilling of paints.

Primer Coat

Final Coat

Testing Methods
a) Anchor Profile
b) Dry Film Thickness Check
c) Adhesion Test

Anchor Profile check

DRY FILM THICKNESS CHECK

Coatings Failure
Causes & Remedies

BLISTERING
Causes
Contamination of the surface
(e.g. oils, waxes, dust, etc.)
Poor or inadequate solvent
release from the coating.
Soluble salts contaminating the
substrate or contaminating the
surface between coats
Remedies
Proper Surface cleaning
Contamination should be avoided

PINHOLES
Causes
excessive air pressure
excessive film thickness
strong wind (too good
ventilation)
too long application distance
Remedies
Suitable air pressure
Recommended Film thickness
Recommended application
distance
Painting in Closed area free
from strong winds and dirts etc

MUD CRACKING
Causes
A relatively inflexible coating
applied too thickly (especially in
inorganic zincs)
Remedies
Remove coating and abrasively
blast steel before reapplying at
lesser thickness: sanding /
mechanical cleaning may be
acceptable on old substrates.

SAGGING
Causes
Paint is applied in excess of the
DFT specified
Too much thinner has been
added to the paint
The gun is held too close to the
surface.
Remedies
Recommended DFT should be
maintained
Proper percentage of Thinner
Off take
Spray gun to be held at
recommended distance

ORANGE PEEL OFF
Causes
Improper atomization due to low
air pressure
Spraying too close to the surface
Rapid solvent evaporation
Remedies
Proper Air pressure
Holding the gun at recommended
distance

PEELING Causes
Unsatisfactory surface
preparation
Incompatible primer or
undercoat
Substrate or intercoat
contamination
Excessive cure time between
coats
Remedies
Proper Surfqce preparation
Proper Priming
Avoid contamination
Proper curing time

CHAPTER 9
Quality Management
System

Quality
Management
System

ISO 9001:2008 the Standard
ISO 9001:2008 is the international standard
that specifies the requirements for quality
management systems.
ISO 9001:2008 is written by the

International Organization for
Standardization.
ISO 9001:2008 Registration
Registration of Quality Management
Systems to ISO 9001:2008 is provided by
Accredited Registrars such as
LQRA,BVQI,TUV,Velosi

ISO 9001:2008
ISO = equal; uniform (NOT an acronym)
9001 = number assigned to the quality

management system standard
2008 = 2008AD - the year of the revision

of the standard
What is Quality
Defining QUALITY
Quality can be defined as fitness for intended
use
In quality management terminology quality
means meeting customer requirements
Customers define quality Ex. a quantity of 6
ordered and 6 delivered on time is a measure
of quality (meeting customer requirements)

Linking Quality to the Bottom Line
Understand customer requirements

Meet customer requirements by doing it
right the first time, every time in all
quality/business management system
processes
Continually improve your quality
management system

ISO 9001:2008 - framework for QMS
Essentially, ISO 9001:2008 is a framework or outline
for a quality management system.
When you build and implement your Quality

Management System based on ISO 9001:2000, you
will be managing your organization as a system of
interrelated processes.
You will plan these processes; identify how they

relate to each other, set goals, measure the
processes and make improvements.

ISO 9001:2008 Process
Approach

Steps toward a Quality Management
System
Development
Step 1 : Consider your main business

activities and processes (i.e. the different
flows of work through your business) and
list them

Step 2 : With this list in mind decide if
there any exclusion of requirements that
apply to your business (Ex. If your business
activities do not include design and
development, then this can be excluded and
the exclusion justified in your quality

Steps toward a Quality Management
System
Implementation
Step 3 : Involve people by getting them to write down what their
jobs cover.
Step 4 : Collate this in sequences relevant to the list of main
business activities you made earlier.
Step 5 : Identify where the ISO 9001:2008 standard and this list
link together.
Step 6: Apply the standard and the quality management system.
Step 7: Keep the quality management system simple and
functional (i.e. relevant)

Steps toward a Quality Management System
Maintenance
Step 8: Consider the feedback of information from the
quality management system (such as internal audit
findings, customer perception data, nonconformity
reports, corrective and preventive action reports) to
lead to improvement in ideas, processes and activities
Step 9: Monitor and measure the changes so you know

what you have gained by it all.

Importance of your Quality Policy
Your Quality Policy, signed and communicated by top
management, is the guiding star of your quality
management system. To satisfy the requirements of ISO
9001:2008 it must include the following commitments
(include examples) and purpose:
Meet customer and regulatory requirements
Continually improve your quality management system
Establish the foundation for setting corporate and
functional quality/business objectives

Getting your QMS Registered to ISO
9001:2008
Once the quality system is in place a
Registrar will come and audit.
If all the criteria are being followed, the
company will be ISO 9001:2000 Registered
Registered companies can advertise their
Registration logo in marketing materials.
Potential customers will know that you have a
good Quality Management System in Place.

Benefits of Your ISO 9001:2000
QMS
For your customers:
More confidence in your products and services
Their complaints get heard and acted upon
It saves them time and money through fewer
errors, problems, and returns
Improved customer satisfaction

Benefits of Your ISO 9001:2008 QMS
For your Internal Operations
Fewer errors, scrap, rework (do it right the
first time, every time)
Exposes areas and processes to improve
Lowers risk
Catches mistakes internally, instead of in the
field or at the customer level
Optimization of costs and resources

For your Sales and Marketing:
Access to new business
Provides a marketing edge
Protects existing business
Worldwide recognition
Flexibility to react quickly to opportunities
Performance advantage through improved
organizational capabilities

For your Employees:

They know what is expected of them through
clear definition of requirements
It improves internal communication

It improves morale
Easier orientation for new employees

For your Suppliers:
Fewer supplier errors through clear product
and service specifications
You have a mechanism to track and correct
supplier problems
You use qualified suppliers and have better
ability to form productive partnerships

Going forward to an ISO 9001:2000 QMS
Select a Quality Consultant or assign a quality specialist
within your company to develop and implement your
companys quality management system in conformance
with ISO 9001:2000
Select a Registrar (Auditor) who will review your

quality system documentation (manual and
procedures), quality records, and interview
management and line staff to ensure that the system as
documented has been effectively implemented.

Time from Start to Registration
The estimated time from Step 1 of the

Development of your Quality
Management System to your readiness
for Registration to ISO 9001:2008 can be
achieved within 1 year including a 3-
month implementation period
immediately prior to your Registration
Audit.
Registration to ISO 9001:2008
A Registration Contract is an automatically renewable
three-year contract and services are billed as they are
delivered as follows:
Year 1 : Documentation Review and Registration Audit
of 100% of the quality System
Year 2 : Surveillance Audit of 50% of the system
Year 3 : Surveillance Audit of 50% of the system
Year 4 : Contract renews with Re-Registration Audit of
100% of the quality management system


Introductory Course For Mechanical Engineers

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Introductory Course

Organized by KERA in association with

Day 1 17th September 2010

Introductory course for

In some situations it is not possible to draw all the

Introductory course for

Piping and Instrument Diagram. (P&ID)

Introductory course for

It is a schematic representation of the complete process

Introductory course for

B.2.1. LINE NUMBERING

Introductory course for

Explanation for each parts of line numbering is made as

Introductory course for

Introductory course for

DC- Closed Drain

AU- Utility Air

Introductory course for

The third part indicates the material classification.

Introductory course for

The fourth group of digits indicate the serial number of the

B.2.6. Revision in drawing and Cloud Indication

Some part of the P&ID a cloud like indication is marked.

Introductory course for

Static equipment is stationery and has no rotating part. Eg.

Introductory course for

It is very easy to read the drawing because the elevation is

B.3.2.1Nozzle orientation of pressure vessel

Introductory course for

Piping isometric drawing is a three dimensional drawing

Introductory course for

There is no separate plan, elevation or end view for an

Introductory course for

Introductory course for

In each isometric the height of the line with respect to

The reference elevation is either from the sea level or any

Introductory course for

Co-ordinates such as North and West (or East and South)

Introductory course for

Some of the information regarding design pressure, test

B.4.8. Material specification

Specifications for materials used for construction of piping

Introductory course for

Pipe, 2NS Sch XS, CS ASTM A106 Gr B

2 -The nominal pipe diameter.

Introductory course for

Metallic structures as well as Concrete structures used in

Introductory course for

Dimensions, welding details etc. are clearly shown in

Introductory course for

General arrangement drawing is the plan view of the site. It

Introductory course for

Introductory course for

Non- Ferrous metals

Introductory course for

Wrought Product Wrought = worked

Plate (Sheet, Strip)

Welding & Brazing Materials

Introductory course for

Introductory course for

Introductory course for

1-Visual inspection (Surface finish, pits, dents, cracks, edge

2-Dimension check: The plate dimensions such as length,