Process Involved in

Morphogenesis
Cell Division- Mitosis
- Meiosis
Mitosis- Somatic cells/vegetative cells
Meiosis-egg cells, zigots, anther
( reproductive cells)
In tissue culture- mitosis is more important
Mitosis occurs at meristems
Growth, differentiation, development-
mentioned earlier
 Mitosis
Cell Division involves replication of all organelles inside
the cell and nucleus is the most important part.- The
most studied.
The repeated nucleus division involve formation of
chromosomes and mitosis alternate with resting
period/phase known as interphase.
Interphase is not a resting period. It consists of 3
phases;
i) G1- Gap 1; ii) G2- Gap 2; iii) S- synthesis phase (
Replication)
During interphase, DNA, protein and some
macromolecules being synthesized.
 M
Interphase (resting phase)-
G1,G2,S
Prophase
G2 G1
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Mitosis (M)G1SG2
M- is a cycle, termed as Cell
cycle

S
 Definition of Mitosis
Cell division whereby chromatids in each
chromosome in a genome divides into two so
that the total chromatids become equal in each
daughter cell. As a result the daughter cells
become smaller than the mother cells.
In some cases, the sizes of the daughter cells
are not the same ( asymmetry). The daughter
cells then enlarge/grow ( involves the
components of cyctoplasm & cell wall).
 Cont.
The number of cells in division zone is constant, at least
for a certain period, therefore not all the cells divide
unlimitedly. Only the initial cells which remain
active/meristematic.
Green ( 1986)& Furuya (1983) stated that cell division
pattern as a consequence of several internal and
external factors such as polarity as opposed to non-
polarity.
Eg. In spores ( Fungi/ferns)- the polarity of the cells is
stable. Even when undergo centrifugation for 30 mins ( a
treatment which can result in random orientation of the
spores) or can result in/ produce several layers in cell
content. However, this did not happen to the fungi and
fern spores.
 Cont.
Symmetry and asymmetry division is induced by
geometry of the nuclear.
Apical division as compared to intercalary
division is regulated by the position---Apical
dominance.
The difference in cell cycle durations, division
sites, determined by genetic and environmental
factors.
Pattern of cell division dependent on many
factors which interact with each other.
 Cont.
In fern protonema which consists of 5
cells, only the apical cell which divide and
grow.
When the apical cell is removed, the
second cell will take over/replace,
however, if the basal cell is removed, it
does not affect the apical cell. This show
that division is controlled by apical
dominance.
 Cont.
Asymmetry division usually occur in the
production of root hairs, complex stomata,
protonema, rhizoid in ferns.
Another eg. of asymmetry division occurs in
apical cell of a protonema through formation of
cell wall at a certain position i.e. 40-50 um from
apical in Pteris and 50-80 um in Adiantium
regardless of the length of the cell.
 Significance of Mitosis In Vitro
One of the reasons for diversity in plant form and structure is due to
regulation/pattern of cell division.
Mitosis is the most important and the key event for living cells/ cells
life. Mitosis ensures that equal genetic components is divided
between the two daughter cells.
Mitosis is the determining factor for overall growth of the plant.
Through division, the basic unit of life is produced, from which the
whole organism is organised.
Cell Division also make it possible for the cells to grow,enlarge,
elongate etc.
The higher division rate, the more cells are being produced to the
system.
Division also necessary for cells to redifferentiate. Transformation of
plant form/structure to a different or another form is achieved
through cell division.
 Examples
Leaf explant---Cultured----callus formation----
shoots---roots
Leaf Explants (matured cells/organs/specialised
cells)----Culture to redifferentiate into basic cells
( unspecialised cells, eg parenchima cells)---
transform into other specialised cells, form
organs such as shoots/root cells.
Callus- undifferentiated cells.
 Tissue Culture- Tool for
Biotechnology- related to
morphogenesis
In tissue culture, mostly vegetative parts are
used, therefore only mitosis involves in organ
formation.
Mitosis is very important in vitro/ in tissue
culture system.
As a result of mitosis/mitotic division
organogenesis ( formation of organs),
Regeneration ( formation of complete plant).
 Plant Regeneration
Totipotency Concept- single cell can give rise to complete
plant
Explants can form complete plants
( Regeneration)- with roots, shoots,leaves
The main aim of tissue culture- to put back to natural
environment.
Hormones play important role for regeneration. The
balance of auxin and cytokinin; more auxin compared to
cytokinin will produce roots
More cytokinin as compared to auxin will produce
shoots.
Equal concentration will produce callus. ( eg. In tobacco)
Since then, applied to other species.
African violet being acclimatised in the
culture room (temp. of 2520)
 Plant Regeneration
Explant ( leaf, root, stem etc)---shoots ( Multiple
shoots)----isolate shoots---subculture/transfer to
rooting medium---roots ( Regeneration) Direct
regeneration
Explant ( leaf, root, stem etc)--- CALLUS--shoots
( Multiple shoots)----isolate shoots---
subculture/transfer to rooting medium---roots (
Regeneration) Indirect regeneration
 Organogenesis
Formation of plant organs- leaf/shoot/root
Direct & Indirect organogenesis
If involves callus phase---Indirect
Callus- embryogenic and non embryogenic
Embryogenic callus will give rise to
somatic embryogenesis
Non embryogenic will not form any organs
in culture.
 Somatic Embryogenesis
Can be direct or indirect depending on the
formation of callus. Without callus formation is
direct somatic embryogenesis.
The formation of embryos from vegetative cells (
diploid cells) without the fusion of male and
female gametes as occur in nature.
Can be induced from tissue culture although in
some citrus species can occur naturally.
The stages/phases undergo by these
embryogenic cells are the same as zigotic
embryos.
 Stages of Somatic Embryogenesis

Callus ( embryogenic)Pro embryo

masses---globular- heart-shaped
torpedo-shaped/stagecotyledonary
phase---leaf primordia/shoot
SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS
The formation of embryos without fusion of male
& female gametes
Vegetative/ somatic tissues
Direct or indirect process
Involves stages similar with zigotic embryos(
globular, heart, torpedo etc.)
Efficient method for mass propagation.
Induced from small pieces of tissues by plant
hormones.
 Somatic Embryogenesis - Example of
Morphogenesis, useful for Biotechnology for mass
propagation
 Stages of somatic embryogenesis

a) Embryogenic b) Somatic embryo- c) Somatic embryo- d) Somatic embryo-

callus Globular phase Heart-shaped phase Torpedo-shaped phase

h) Flowering g) Plantlets derived f) Regeneration e) Somatic embryo-

Begonia from from somatic from somatic Cotyledonary
somatic embryo embryo embryo phase
Culture room
Formation of multiple shoots on MS supplemented with
1.0mg/l IAA and 2.0 mg/l zeatin
Plant Regeneration Of Saintpaulia Ionantha Wendl
African violet after 2 months of
acclimatization