LIMBA ENGLEZA 2

Luminia Cocr Andrei

 Contents
Unit 1- Globalization
Language focus: The tenses of the Indicative Mood
Practice/Exam focus
Unit 2- Business Communication
Language Focus: Conditionals; the Subjunctive
Practice/Exam focus
Unit 3 Business and Culture
Language focus: Modal verbs
Practice/Exam focus
 Language focus: Verb Tenses
The Simple Present is used to express:
permanent truths
The sun rises in the east.
Gases expand when heated.
conditions and situations that exist at the present time
My mother wears glasses.
I work at Ace Electronics.
habitual actions
John travels to Spain every year.
I usually get up at 6:30.
comments and declarations
I hope everything will be all right.
I hear Sara has been promoted.
I don't agree with you.
 Language focus
The Simple Present is used to express:
future reference in describing scheduled events (assumed to be facts)
The plane leaves at 7:45 and arrives at 10:20.
future reference after some subordinating conjunctions
I'll call you when I get to San Francisco.
While is used for an event that is interrupted by or occurs at the same time as
another event.
I'll make some phone calls while you finish your report.
 Language focus
The Present Continuous is used to express:
actions in progress at the moment of speaking
Shh. She is dictating a letter.
actions in progress around the present
I'm very nervous. I'm taking exams this week.
We're changing our accounting system at work.
temporary situations
She's studying Chinese.
I'm working at a law firm for the summer. (= it's a temporary job)
Compare: She works at a law firm. (= it's her regular job)
 Language focus
The Present Continuous is used to express:
planned future actions
We're leaving for Hong Kong tomorrow.
He's coming home next week.
repeated actions (with always, constantly, etc.), it implies
annoyance and irritation on the part of the speaker
You're always complaining. You're never satisfied.
 Language focus
Verbs that are not used in the continuous
aspect:
appreciate, care, dislike, doubt, feel, hate, hope, like,
love, respect, trust
feel, hear, look, notice, see, smell, sound, taste

belong, have, own, possess

agree, believe, consider, disagree, expect, guess,

know, recognize, remember, suspect, think,
understand, wonder
need, prefer, want, wish
 Practice
Put the verbs in italics in the correct tense.
1. Its raining/rains very hard. Can you give me a
lift home?
2. I dont have/am not having much spare time at
the moment. Im studying to pass an exam.
3. I speak/am speaking French fluently because I
grew up in Paris.
4. The price of shares varies/is varying according
to economic conditions.
 Language focus
The Past Simple is used to express:
actions or events that began and ended in the past. A time reference is
usually given or understood from the context.
I spoke to the contractor this morning.
We introduced two new products in January.
I played a lot of tennis when I was younger.
I never met my grandfather. (he is dead)
Who left the door open? (a moment ago-it is still open)
past habitual actions. A specific time period is usually given or understood.
My family rented a house at the beach every summer when I was a child.
He smoked a pack of cigarettes a day until he quit.
 Language focus
The past tense does not always refer to past time. It can also be used in
present unreal conditionals, expressing wishes, and in making polite requests.
I wondered if you could give me a ride. (more tentative or polite than I
wonder if you could give me a ride.)
In present unreal conditionals in the if clause:
something that is totally impossible in the present
If I knew the answer, I would tell you. (I don't know the answer.)
My mother died in 1994. If she were still alive, she'd be 67.
something that is possible, but perhaps not very likely
A: Could I look over the sales report?
B: It would be better if you waited until tomorrow. We'll have the final figures
then.
If you really wanted to exercise, you would find the time.
 Language focus
Expressing wishes
after the verb to wish the past tense to refer to present time
I wish/If only I had a pen with me (now) so I could write that down.
I wish/If only I didn't have to go to work now.
Wish can be used for something that is impossible.
I wish I were twenty years younger.
 Language focus
The Past Continuous is used to express:
actions or situations in progress at a point in the past
The picnic was cancelled yesterday because it was raining.
A: What were you doing between 8:00 and 10:00 that night?
B: I was watching television.
two past actions in progress at the same time
While I was looking at the sales figures, my assistant was answering
some e-mails.
At the time I was working in the bank, I was also studying engineering.
repeated actions
When he worked here, Patrick was always making mistakes.
polite requests
I was wondering if you could give me a ride.
 Language focus
events planned in the past to take place at a later time ("future in the past")
We were just going to leave when I fell and twisted my ankle.
(answering the phone) Hi, Annie. I was going to call you today.
Use the past progressive (continuous) together with the simple past for past
actions or situations interrupted by a shorter action or event.
The action in progress is often introduced by when, as, just as, or while.
Just as I was leaving the house, the phone rang.
He learned how to ski when he was living in Switzerland.
When can also introduce the shorter action.
We were having dinner when he walked through the door.
I was waiting for the bus when a blue car pulled up.
 Language focus

The Present Perfect Simple is used to express actions occurring in a period of

time up to the present.
with already, before (now), ever, never, so far, yet
This is the most interesting book I've ever read.
A: Have you finished the report yet?
B: Yes, I've already sent it out.
with just or recently for recent actions (in American English, the simple
past tense can also be used)
They've just left for the airport.
with often, several times, etc., for repeated or habitual actions
He has been to Japan twice in the past year.
I've often wondered what happened to Tom.
without an adverb of time or duration
We've had a lot of problems with the new software.
I can't find my keys. I've looked everywhere.
 Language Focus
The Present Perfect Simple is used to express situations beginning in the
past and continuing up to now (and possibly into the future).
with since + point in time
Mr. Ito has been with the company since 1998.
with for + period of time
I've lived here for five years. (and I still live here)
Compare: I lived here for five years. (but I don't live here now)
with adverbs of duration
I've always loved to swim.
Notice that the present perfect is not usually used with adverbs referring
to a period of time that has ended. Use the simple past instead.
I haven't seen Ahmed today, but I saw him yesterday.
 Language Focus
The Present Perfect Continuous is used to express:
actions that began in the past and are still in progress
He has been looking for a job for over two months, but he hasn't found
anything yet.
I've been painting this room for two days and I'm still not done. (= unfinished
action)
Compare: I've painted this room three times and I still don't like it. (=
completed action)
actions that have recently stopped and have effects now
Let's go for a walk. I've been sitting most of the day.
repeated actions
The phone has been ringing all morning.
temporary actions or situations
I've been staying at my cousin's house, but I'm moving to my own house next
week.
 Language focus
The Past Perfect Simple is used:
to show which of two past events happened first
I had never eaten sushi before I moved to Japan. Now I love it.
When we arrived, Tom had already left.
to show that something happened before a time in the past:
Juliet was excited because she had never sailed a boat before.
I began collecting stamps in February and by November I had collected more than 500.
He had changed so much that I almost didn't recognize him.
to describe things one hoped or wished to do but didn't (e.g., with expect, hope, mean,
suppose, think, want)
She had hoped to reach him before he left, but she was too late.
When, after, as soon as, or by the time that are often used with the past perfect.
We went to bed as soon as our guests had gone home.
Notice that the past perfect is not always needed to show which event came first.
Sometimes either the past perfect or simple past can be used.
After I (had) checked my schedule for the day, I returned some phone calls.
 Language focus
The Past Perfect Continuous is used:
actions that began at an earlier time and were still in progress at a time in the
past
We'd been waiting for three hours when we got the phone call. (= we were still waiting)
Compare: We'd waited for three hours, so we decided to go home.(= we stopped waiting
and went home)
actions that had recently ended and had an effect at a time in the past
He was very tired. He had been walking for hours.
 Language focus
The Future Simple is used for:
making predictions
There's a lot to discuss. It will be a long meeting.
announcing decisions made at the moment of speaking
A: It's hot in here.
B: I'll open a window.
announcing scheduled events, especially in a formal style
The meeting will take place on June 27th.
making promises
I won't leave without you.
expressing hopes, expectations, and beliefs (e.g., after assume, believe, doubt,
expect, hope, suppose, think)
I hope she'll get the job.
A: Do you think he'll like the present?
B: I'm sure he will.
 Language focus
The Future Continuous is used for:
actions that will be in progress at a time in the future
We'd better hurry. The guests will be arriving at any minute.
By this time tomorrow, I'll be lying on the beach.
making a question about plans sound more polite
Will you be working late tonight?
When will you be seeing Dr. Weiss? (e.g., assistant to supervisor)
Compare: When will you finish these letters? (e.g., supervisor to assistant)
talking about planned events
The bus won't be leaving until six.
We'll be spending the summer in California.
 Language focus
The GOING TO Future is used for:
making predictions based on present evidence
Look at those black clouds! It's going to rain.
Tom's always late for work. He's going to get fired.
My wife is going to have a baby.
plans and firm intentions
I'm going to be away for a couple of weeks.
I've made my decision. I'm going to take that job.
The Future Perfect Simple is used to express:
actions that will be completed by a time in the future
Fumiko will have retired by the year 2030.
states that continue up to the time mentioned (and may continue into the
future)
We will have been graduated for a year on June 25th.
 Language focus
The Future Perfect Continuous is used to express actions that will be in
progress at a time in the future.
By this time next week, I will have been working for this company for twelve
years.
Other Ways of Expressing the Future
Present Simple and Present Continuous express firm future events.
We're meeting him at the airport.
His plane gets in at 9:30.
BE TO + verb expresses future plans or instructions.
He is to give us the signed contract on Monday.
All visitors are to leave the building by 8:00 p.m.
BE DUE TO + verb is used to refer to schedules.
Flight 1561 is not due to arrive until 10:15.
The work is due to finish by the middle of September.
BE ABOUT TO+ verb refers to something imminent
Let's find our seats. The AGM is about to start.
 Practice
Underline the correct form of the verb in italics.
1. I saw/had seen his presentation before, so I didnt
want/hadnt wanted to see it again.
2. We explained/had explained that the special offer
finished/had finished.
3. I thought/had thought that I told/had told you already.
 Language focus: IF Clause
Conditional situations are where one action /event depends on another
action/event happening or not happening. We often use conditional
structures in business negotiations, where we want to make proposals.
Conditional sentences have two parts or clauses: condition clause and result
clause:
If you pour oil on water, it floats.
Zero conditional
We use the zero conditional to describe scientific and natural laws and
situations that are always true.
If it doesnt rain for a long time, plants die.
We also use the zero conditional to give instructions or orders:

If the accountant calls, tell her to wait.

We use the present tense in the condition clause and also in the result clause.

If fuel prices rise, people use their cars less.

 Language focus: IF Clause
IF CLAUSE TYPE 1
used to talk about future situations that are possible, likely or expected to
happen. In business negotiations, we often use the first conditional to make
specific proposals.
If you increase the quantity, well give you a bigger discount.
We use the present tense in the condition clause and will + the infinitive in
the result clause.
If you deliver the goods next week, we will pay immediately.
In the result clause, we can use other modal verbs instead of will to show
different degrees of certainty, possibility, etc concerning the result.
If we buy a larger quantity, we may get a bigger discount.
DO NOT USE will in the condition clause.

If we lower the price, (not If we will lower the price )

 Language focus: IF Clause
IF CLAUSE TYPE 2
used to talk about the future situations that are seen as impossible, unlikely or
hypothetical.
In business negotiations, we often use the second conditional to explore areas
of agreement and disagreement.
Wed be prepared to lower our price if you placed a bigger order.
We use the past tense in the condition clause and would + infinitive in the
result clause.
If we reduced the price, we would sell more cars.
In the result clause, we can use other modal verbs instead of would to show
different degrees of certainty, possibility, etc concerning the result.
If we bought a larger quantity, we might/could get a bigger discount.
 Language focus: IF Clause
IF CLAUSE TYPE 3
used to reflect on the past to say what would have happened if things had
been different.
If Id known you were coming, Id have arranged a demonstration.
 Language focus: IF Clause
ALTERNATIVES TO IF
When suggests that, in the speakers mind, the condition is certain to happen but the time of
the result is not known.
When the temperature reaches 30 degrees, the air-conditioning turns on.
As soon as is similar to when, except that it implies that the result will happen immediately the
condition is met.
As soon as I hear the news, Ill tell you whether we won the award.
Unless means the same as if not or if I/you, etc do not
Unless I hear from the client today, Ill cancel the order (= if I dont hear from the client)
In case is often used when we think ahead about possible problems and try to avoid by doing
something in advance
Ill give you my mobile phone number in case you need to contact me.
Provided that and on condition that are used as more formal alternatives to if. For example, they
are often used in contractual or legal documents and in formal negotiations.
Provided that you complete the installation on time, we will make a bonus payment.
We will give you a full refund on condition that you return the products undamaged.
 Practice
Complete the sentences with the correct forms
of the following verbs: fall, buy, cancel, go,
increase.
1. If I a house Id save money in the long run.
2. Youd have arrived earlier if youby train.
3. If interest rates wed take out a loan.
4. I dont know what Id do if theythe flight
5. Wed our order if you reduced the prices.
 Language focus2: The Subjunctive
We use the subjunctive form in certain fixed expressions and after some verbs
which express the idea of necessity, importance, etc. The subjunctive form can be
used to refer to events and situations in the past, present or future.
FORMS:
A. THE SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE:
- borrows its forms from 0. the Short Infinitive (be, give, say, etc.)
1. the Past Tense of the Indicative (were is used
for all persons, gave, said , called)
2. the Past Perfect of the Indicative (had been, had
given, had said, had called)
B. THE ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE
- uses modal auxiliaries (should, may, might, would, could)
+ the Short Infinitive of the main verb (should be, may give, might
say)
+ HAVE + the Past Participle of the main verb (should have been,
may have given, might have said)
 Language focus2: The Subjunctive
The Subjunctive is used most often in that clauses
after certain verbs

advise, ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest

after adjectives

advisable, desirable, eager essential, important, necessary, vital

to express the idea that something is important or necessary

At yesterdays hearing the judge insisted (that) Mr. Bright give evidence despite his
relationship to the accused.
In future it will be vital that each party give full disclosure prior to trial.

Members of the committee suggested England be excluded from future international

competitions.
Regulations require that officers not enter the crime scene without protective clothing.
 Language focus2: The Subjunctive
The subjunctive is used in reported speech and in very formal language:
She insisted that she pay her own way.

We require that all receipts be submitted to the committee for approval.

It is vital that every applicant complete the form in triplicate.

It is vital that every applicant should complete the form in triplicate.

There are some fixed expressions which use subjunctive forms:

Bless you!
Long live the republic!
 Language focus2: The Subjunctive
Other expressions that introduce subjunctive forms are:
If only
Its time
What if
Suppose/Supposing
Would rather, would sooner, as if, as though, wish
Present:
Its time they were forced to solve the problem.
Future:
I wish I were coming with you tomorrow.
Past:
I wish I had never started the course. (But I have started it)
Wish/if only are used with Subjunctive 1 to express a desire for something to be
different in the present:
I wish I had more free time.
If only I were young again.
Wish/if only are used with Subjunctive 2 to express a regret about the past, a wish
that something different had happened:
I wish that youd told me about this before I bought the tickets.
If only he hadnt been driving so fast!
 Practice
Correct the errors in each sentence:
1. Its time I go.
2. I wish I own a house.
3.I wish we are not leaving in the morning.
4. John would rather reading than doing
anything else.
5. I hope it would stop raining.
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
A modal verb
always comes before another verb:

You should go.

is not followed by to:

You may go. NOT You may to go.
its form never changes, there is no s on the third person, no ing form,
no past tense.
Questions are formed by inverting the modal and the subject:
Should I go?

Modals express the speakers judgement about the likelihood or desirability of

a situation. Most of them can be used to talk about probability and
possibility. They can also express obligation or willingness.
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
ABILITY
We use CAN to say that someone is able/not able to do something.
Our new divisional manager can speak four languages fluently.
He cant drive, hes never learnt how to.

We use COULD to speak of a past ability.

He could play the piano when he was five years old.

COULD may also indicate disapproval when something is or was not done.
She could make more than an effort
She could have told me beforehand- I needed to know.
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
OBLIGATION, PROHIBITION
We use must or has/ have to to indicate what is compulsory in
the present and future.
Any change in taxation must be fair.
All travellers to China have to be in possession of a visa.
Must can also be used in reported speech.
The London Chamber of Commerce said the government must act to
tackle the capitals traffic problems.
If something was necessary or obligatory in the past we use had
to and we use will have to for the future.
When we lived in Sao Paulo we had to learn some Portuguese.
We will have to evaluate the new procedures regularly.
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
The absence of future obligation is expressed by will not/ wont have to.
If you open a bank account in the Bahamas you wont have to pay
income tax.
We use do not have to to express freedom of choice.
I can work from home so I dont have to go into the office very often.
We prefer to use must when we oblige ourselves to do something. We prefer
have to when the obligation is imposed by other people or external
circumstances.
I must remember to get in touch with Mr. Smith.
We have to wear a uniform at work.
I enjoy going to conferences unless I have to make a presentation.
We use must not to say that something is forbidden or very unacceptable.
Passengers must not smoke during take-off.
You mustnt enter a joint venture unless both parties benefit from the
deal.
 Business and Culture
Language focus: Modal Verbs
POSSIBILITY
We use can to say that something is possible and cannot or could not if
something is impossible.
Mathematics can be really interesting.
You cant fly to Dover there isnt an airport.
I couldnt tell you exactly what our turnover is.
If a situation is possible but it is not certain that it will happen, we use could.
A lot of accidents at work could be avoided.
We use could not if something was impossible.
Twenty years ago you couldnt buy a computer as cheaply as you can now.
A past opportunity which was not fulfilled is expressed using could have and
a past participle.
She could have gone to Harvard but she went to Yale instead.
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
LIKELIHOOD
A number of modal verbs are used to express degrees of certainty, according
to the speakers perception of the situation.
100% certain
The 21-st century will be very different from the preceding ones.
Economics will never be a precise science.
Very certain based on deduction
You must be very tired after such a long flight.
That cant be her car. It is too old.
Probable
You may well have a point there.
We should arrive before lunch if there is not too much traffic.
Likely (based on speculation)
The firm may be forced to make a number of employees redundant.
The situation may improve in the long term.
The President might survive the scandal.
Highly unlikely / impossible
You wont know Agnes, she is our new Marketing person
We cant meet such a short deadline.
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
PERMISSION, SUGGESTION, OFFERS
Can is used to ask for and give permission.
Can I use your mobile phone? Sure, you can.
May and could are also used for permission, but not to refuse permission.
They are more formal than can.
May I use your password? No, Im afraid you cant.
Could I come back later? No, I dont think thatll be possible.
If we want to talk about permission for a future action we use the verb allow
or permit.
They wont allow /permit you to travel alone.
We make suggestions by the help of should, might, could or shall.
I think you should upgrade your computer.
You might want to look at the new model.
Or you could add extra memory to your existing machine.
Shall I look at what it would cost?
To express offer we can use can, would and shall.
Can we give you a lift into town?
Would you like me to give you a hand?
Shall I give you a hand?
 Language focus: Modal Verbs
WILLINGNESS, REFUSAL, PROMISES, THREATS, TYPICAL
BEHAVIOUR
We use will or would to make a polite request or to ask someone if they are
willing to assist.
Will you sign here, please?
Would you do me a favour?
If you want to say that you are unwilling to do something, you can use will
not or wont.
I will not tolerate her behaviour.
Other people or things can also show unwillingness.
The car wont start.
If you make a firm commitment to do something in the future you use will:
We will do everything in our power to satisfy your needs.
Would is used to talk about actions that happened frequently in the past.
Our previous chairman would begin the meeting with a joke.
 Practice
Complete the sentences with the right modal verb:

1.When I was younger I run several kilometers

without feeling tired.
2. Our previous chairman begin the meeting
with a joke.
3. Hes so lazy. I really feel he try harder.