Chi-Square Tests

WEL COME

IHGI JALANDHAR
Dr. k. k. chawla

Copyright 2011 by Pearson

Education, Inc. All rights reserved
Chi-Square Tests
Are used when the variable of interest is a
nominal variable
The values of a nominal variable are categories.
The scores of a nominal variable represent frequencies.

Chi-square tests examine how well the observed

breakdown of people or observations over
categories fits an expected breakdown.
Chi-square test of goodness of fit involves levels of a single nominal
variable.
Chi-square test for independence is used when there are two
nominal variables each with several categories.

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Steps for Figuring the Chi-Square Statistic
Determine the actual observed frequencies in each category.
Determine the expected frequency in each category.
In each category, take the observed minus expected
frequencies.
Square each of these differences.
Divide each squared difference by the expected frequency
for its category.
Add up the these results for all the categories.
The Chi-Square Distribution
Estimating the distribution of chi-square statistics that
would arise by chance
The exact shape of the chi-square distribution depends on
degrees of freedom, but they are all skewed to the right
because the chi-square statistic cannot be less than 0 but
can have very high values.
The degrees of freedom for a chi-square test are the
number of categories that are free to vary, given the total.
For example, if there are two categories, there is one
degree of freedom.
df = Ncategories 1

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The Chi-Square Table

To use this table, you need to determine the degrees of freedom

and the significance level that you will use for your study.
Summary: Hypothesis Testing Chi-Square Test
for Goodness of Fit
Restate the question as a research hypothesis and a null hypothesis about
the population.
The research hypothesis is that the observations over categories in the two
populations are different.
The null hypothesis is that the observations over categories in the two populations
are the same.
Determine the characteristics of the comparison distribution.
chi-squared distribution; df = number of categories 1
Determine the cutoff on the comparison distribution at which the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
Determine your samples score on the comparison distribution.
Determine the actual observed frequencies in each category.
Determine the expected frequencies in each category.
In each category, take observed minus expected frequencies.
Square each of these differences.
Divide each squared difference by the expected frequency for its category.
Add up these results for all categories.
Decide whether to reject the null hypothesis.
Compare your samples score to the cutoff score.
Example of Hypothesis Testing Chi-Square
Test for Goodness of Fit
In the example , the researchers looked at the gender of
characters on cereal boxes.

In order to test their hypothesis

*male characters would appear more often than female

characters on cereal boxes.*
 Example of Hypothesis Testing Chi-Square
Test for Goodness of Fit

Of the 1,386 characters whose gender was

determined, 996 (72%) were male and 390 (28%)
were female characters.
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Education, Inc. All rights reserved
Step 1: Restate the question as a Ha and Ho
Population 1: characters on cereal boxes like those
in the study
Population 2: characters on cereal boxes who are
equally likely to be male and female

Ha = Male characters will appear more often than

females characters on cereal boxes.
(the distribution of observations over categories in the 2 populations is
different)

Ho = There will be no difference is the appearance

of male and female characters on cereal boxes.
(the distribution of observations over categories in the 2 populations is
not different)
Step 2: Determine the characteristics of the
comparison distribution.

Chi-squared distribution

Degrees of Freedom = Number of Categories 1

2 categories (male & female characters) -1 = 1

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Step 3: Determine the cutoff on the comparison
distribution at which the null hypothesis should be
rejected.
Look at the cutoff on the chi-square table for
your significance level and the studys degrees of
freedom.

Using a significance level of .05 and 1 degree of

freedom the cutoff from the chi-square table is
3.841.
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Determine the actual observed frequencies in each category.
males = 996, females = 390

O E (O-E) (O-E)2

Male 996 693 303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

Female 390 693 -303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

264.96
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Determine the expected frequencies in each category.
males = 693, females = 693

O E (O-E) (O-E)2

Male 996 693 303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

Female 390 693 -303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

264.96
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
In each category, take observed minus expected frequencies.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2

Male 996 693 303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

Female 390 693 -303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

264.96
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Square each of these differences.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2

Male 996 693 303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

Female 390 693 -303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

264.96
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Divide each squared difference by the expected frequency for
its category.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2

Male 996 693 303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

Female 390 693 -303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

264.96
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Add up these results for all categories.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2

Male 996 693 303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

Female 390 693 -303 91,809 91809/693 132.48

264.96
Example of Hypothesis Testing Chi-Square
Test for Goodness of Fit: Step 5

Decide whether to reject the null hypothesis.

The chi-square of the sample264.96is greater than
the cutoff to reject the null hypothesis, which is 3.841.
The researchers can reject the null hypothesis.

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

 Second Example of Hypothesis Testing
Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit

The table that follows includes the primary method of conflict

resolution used by 20 students.

Method Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive

N of students 8 2 2 8

(a) Following the five steps of hypothesis testing, conduct the

appropriate X2 test to determine whether the observed frequencies
are significantly different from the frequencies expected at the .05
level of significance. (b) Explain your results.
Step 1: Restate the question as a Ha and Ho
Population 1: the population of students who use each
method of conflict resolution like those observed.

Population 2: the population of students who use each

method of conflict resolution equally.

Ha = Students will use the methods of conflict

resolution differently.

Ho = Students will not use the methods of conflict

resolution differently.
Step 2: Determine the characteristics of the
comparison distribution.

Chi-squared distribution

Degrees of Freedom = Number of Categories 1

4 categories (methods of conflict resolution) -1 = 3

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Step 3: Determine the cutoff on the comparison
distribution at which the null hypothesis should be
rejected.
Look at the cutoff on the chi-square table for
your significance level and the studys degrees of
freedom.

Using a significance level of .05 and 3 degree of

freedom the cutoff from the chi-square table is
7.815.
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Determine the actual observed frequencies in each category.
Aggressive = 8
Manipulative = 2
Passive = 2
Assertive = 8

O E (O-E) (O-E)2
Aggressive 8 5 3 9 9/5 1.8
Manipulative 2 5 -3 9 9/6 1.8
Passive 2 5 3 9 9/7 1.8
Assertive 8 5 -3 9 9/8 1.8
7.2
Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.

Determine the expected frequencies in each category.

Aggressive = 5
Manipulative = 5
Passive = 5
Assertive = 5

O E (O-E) (O-E)2
Aggressive 8 5 3 9 9/5 1.8
Manipulative 2 5 -3 9 9/6 1.8
Passive 2 5 3 9 9/7 1.8
Assertive 8 5 -3 9 9/8 1.8
7.2
Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.

In each category, take observed minus expected frequencies.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2
Aggressive 8 5 3 9 9/5 1.8
Manipulative 2 5 -3 9 9/6 1.8
Passive 2 5 3 9 9/7 1.8
Assertive 8 5 -3 9 9/8 1.8
7.2
Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.

Square each of these differences.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2
Aggressive 8 5 3 9 9/5 1.8
Manipulative 2 5 -3 9 9/6 1.8
Passive 2 5 3 9 9/7 1.8
Assertive 8 5 -3 9 9/8 1.8
7.2
Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.

Divide each squared difference by the expected frequency for

its category.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2
Aggressive 8 5 3 9 9/5 1.8
Manipulative 2 5 -3 9 9/6 1.8
Passive 2 5 3 9 9/7 1.8
Assertive 8 5 -3 9 9/8 1.8
7.2
Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.

Add up these results for all categories.

O E (O-E) (O-E)2
Aggressive 8 5 3 9 9/5 1.8
Manipulative 2 5 -3 9 9/6 1.8
Passive 2 5 3 9 9/7 1.8
Assertive 8 5 -3 9 9/8 1.8
7.2
Example of Hypothesis Testing Chi-Square
Test

Decide whether to reject the null hypothesis.

The chi-square of the sample7.2is not more than
the cutoff to reject the null hypothesis, which is 7.815.
The researchers cannot reject the null hypothesis.

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

 Chi-Square Test for Independence
Chapter 11 Study Guide Problem 2 (pg. 170)
The behavioral scientists categorized the students based on the
primary method of conflict resolution used and whether the
student had been suspended from school for misbehavior.
Suspended Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive TOTAL

Yes 7 1 1 1 10
No 1 1 1 7 10
TOTAL 8 2 2 8 20

(a) Following the five steps of hypothesis testing, conduct the

appropriate X2 test to determine whether the observed frequencies
are significantly different from the frequencies expected at the .05
level of significance. (b) Explain your results.
Step 1: Restate the question as a research hypothesis
and a null hypothesis about the population.
Population 1: Students for whom the primary method of
conflict resolution is associated with being or not being
suspended from school for misbehavior.
Population 2: Students for whom the primary method of
conflict resolution is independent of being or not being
suspended from school for misbehavior.

Ha: The primary method of conflict resolution used by

students who have been suspended from school are different
from the methods of students who have not been suspended.
Ho: The primary method of conflict resolution used by students
who have been suspended from school are no different from
the methods of students who have not been suspended.
Step 2: Determine the characteristics of
the comparison distribution.
Chi-square distribution
Degrees of freedom = (NColumns 1)(NRows 1)
df = (NMethod 1)(NSuspended 1)
df = (4-1)(2-1)
df = 3

Suspended Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive TOTAL

Yes 7 1 1 1 10
No 1 1 1 7 10
TOTAL 8 2 2 8 20
Step 3: Determine the cutoff sample score on
the comparison distribution at which the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
Decide the significance level you will use for
your study.
For 1 degree of freedom and a .05 significance
level, using the chi-square table your cutoff is
7.815
 Step 4: Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Determine the actual observed frequencies in each cell.
Find each rows percentage of the total.

Suspended Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive TOTAL

Yes 7 1 1 1 10 (50%)
No 1 1 1 7 10 (50%)
TOTAL 8 2 2 8 20
Step 4: Determine your samples score
on the comparison distribution.
EXPECTED FREQUENCIES
For each cell, multiply its rows percentage by the columns total.

Suspended Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive TOTAL

Yes 7 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (4) 10 (50%)

No 1 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 7 (4) 10 (50%)

TOTAL 8 2 2 8 20
Step 4: Determine your samples score
on the comparison distribution.
Determine your samples score on the
comparison distribution.
Figure the X2

Suspended Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive TOTAL

Yes 7 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (4) 10 (50%)

No 1 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 7 (4) 10 (50%)

TOTAL 8 2 2 8 20
Suspended Aggressive Manipulative Passive Assertive TOTAL

Yes 7 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (4) 10 (50%)

No 1 (4) 1 (1) 1 (1) 7 (4) 10 (50%)
TOTAL 8 2 2 8 20
Step 5: Decide whether to accept or
reject the null hypothesis.
Your sample is X2 = 9; this is greater than
7.815, the score needed to reject the null
hypothesis.
You can reject the null hypothesis.
Ha: The primary method of conflict resolution used by
students who have been suspended from school are
different from the methods of students who have not
been suspended.
 Assumptions for the Chi-Square
Tests
Each score must not have any special
relationship to any other score.
You cannot use the chi-square tests if the scores
are based on the same people being tested more
than once.

Copyright 2011 by Pearson

Education, Inc. All rights reserved